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Overview

A declaration specifies the interpretation and attributes of a set of identifiers. It indicates linkage, storage, and part of the type of the entities that the declarators denote. For example, the following declaration has two declarators x and y, both of type const int, declared in file scope with static storage duration.

extern const int x, y;

C declarations were designed so that the declaration of an object looks like the use of the object. This isn't always true, but for the most part this philosophy can be leveraged to read them.

%%ANKI Basic Which parts of the following translation unit are declarations?

extern const int x, y;

Back: The entire line is a single declaration. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What is the type of y in the following?

extern const int x, y;

Back: const int Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which parts of the following translation unit are declarations?

int* a, b;

Back: The entire line is a single declaration. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What is the type of b in the following?

int* a, b;

Back: int Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What is the type of x in the following?

const int *const x, y;

Back: const int* const Reference: Van der Linden, Peter. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets. Programming Languages / C. Mountain View, Cal.: SunSoft Pr, 1994.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What is the type of y in the following?

const int *const x, y;

Back: const int Reference: Van der Linden, Peter. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets. Programming Languages / C. Mountain View, Cal.: SunSoft Pr, 1994.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic A declaration contains how many declarators? Back: One or more. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic A declarator contains how many declarations? Back: N/A. Declarations contain declarators. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

Declarators

A declarator in C is roughly an identifier along with pointers, function brackets, or array indications.

A declarator is said to be full if is not part of another declarator. If any part of a full declarator specifies a variable length array type, the declarator is said to be variably modified. Types containing variably modified declarators are likewise called variably modified types (VMTs).

%%ANKI Basic Consider the following declaration. What are its declarators?

int* a, b;

Back: * a and b. Reference: Van der Linden, Peter. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets. Programming Languages / C. Mountain View, Cal.: SunSoft Pr, 1994.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Consider the following declaration. What are its declarators?

const int *const x;

Back: *const x Reference: Van der Linden, Peter. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets. Programming Languages / C. Mountain View, Cal.: SunSoft Pr, 1994.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Consider the following declaration. What is its type specifier?

const int *const x;

Back: int Reference: Van der Linden, Peter. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets. Programming Languages / C. Mountain View, Cal.: SunSoft Pr, 1994.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Consider the following declaration. What is its type qualifier?

const int *const x;

Back: The first const. Reference: Van der Linden, Peter. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets. Programming Languages / C. Mountain View, Cal.: SunSoft Pr, 1994.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What does it mean for a declarator to be full? Back: It isn't part of another declarator. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What does it mean for a declarator to be variably modified? Back: It contains a variable length array type. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Cloze A {full} declarator is a declarator that {isn't part of another declarator}. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What is VMT an acronym form? Back: Variably modified type. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What are the variably modified declarators of the parameters in the following?

void foo(int n, int M[n][n]);

Back: M[n][n] Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What are the variably modified declarators of the parameters in the following?

void foo(int M[static 1], int *N);

Back: M[static 1] Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which parameters are variably modified in the following prototype?

void foo(int M, int[*]);

Back: The last, unnamed parameter. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which parameters are variably modified in the following prototype?

void foo(int M, int (*fp)(int N[*]));

Back: fp and N. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

Definitions

A definition is a declaration that causes storage to be reserved for the object (for object types) or includes the function body (for function types).

%%ANKI Basic A definition contains how many declarators? Back: One or more. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic For object types, what distinguishes a declaration from a definition? Back: A definition causes storage to be reserved. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic For function types, what distinguishes a declaration from a definition? Back: A definition includes a function body. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What is the relationship between a declaration and a definition? Back: All definitions are also declarations, but not the other way around. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

Initializers

An initializer is an expression that gives an object a value at time of declaration. Only variable-length arrays (VLAs) do not allow for an initializer. The default initializer looks like {0}.

%%ANKI Basic Which part of the following are initializers?

int a = 3;

Back: 3 Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which part of the following are initializers?

double a = { 7.0 };

Back: { 7.0 } Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which part of the following are initializers?

double a = { 7.0 };

Back: { 7.0 } Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020). END%%

%%ANKI Basic How is the following updated to include initializers 1 and 2 for a and b respectively?

int a, b;

Back:

int a = 1, b = 2;

Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What object types allow initializers? Back: All but VLAs. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What object types do not allow initializers? Back: Just variable-length arrays. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What is the default initializer? Back: {0} Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic {0} is a valid initializer for what object types? Back: All but VLAs. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic {0} is not a valid initializer for what object types? Back: Just variable-length arrays. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

Prototypes

There exist two ways for a function declaration to use declarators: parameter type lists and identifier type lists. To make the distinction clear, consider the following ways of defining an add function:

int f(int x, int y) { return x + y; }  // Paramter type list
int f(x, y) int x; int y; { return x + y }  // Identifier type list

A function prototype is a function declaration that specifies a function signature. There are three important points to make note of:

Empty identifier lists are interpreted as "the compiler has not been told what this function's arguments are."
The standard prohibits declaring functions with a non-empty identifier list.
Empty parameter lists are not allowed.

Therefore:

// Uses an empty identifer list. This declares a function `foo`
// that takes an unknown specification of arguments.
void foo();
// Uses a non-empty identifier list. Compiler error.
void foo(x, y);
// Uses a non-empty identifier list. Compiler error.
void foo(x, y) int x; int y;
// Uses a non-empty identifier list. Definitions allow this.
void foo(x, y) int x; int y; { }
// Uses a non-empty parameter list. This prototypes a function
// `foo` that takes no arguments.
void foo(void);
// Uses a non-empty parameter list. This prototypes and defines
// a function `foo` that takes no arguments.
void foo(void) {}

Together these points imply a function prototype must use a parameter type list.

%%ANKI Basic Which of prototypes or declarations are more general? Back: Declarations. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What two ways are parameters declared in function declarations and definitions? Back: Identifier type lists and parameter type lists. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which of identifier type lists and/or parameter type lists are considered obsolete? Back: Identifier type lists. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Define an addition function using identifier type lists. Back:

int add(x, y) int x; int y; { return x + y; }

Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Define an addition function using parameter type lists. Back:

int add(int x, int y) { return x + y; }

Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Is the following a prototype or a declaration?

void foo();

Back: A declaration. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What compilation error does the following raise?

void foo();

Back: N/A. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What compilation error does the following raise?

void foo(x, y);

Back: A function declaration cannot have a non-empty identifier list. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What compilation error does the following raise?

void foo(x, y) int x; int y;

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What compilation error does the following raise?

void foo(x, y) int x; int y; {}

Back: N/A. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What function prototype is declared in the following?

void foo(x, y) int x; int y; {}

Back: N/A. No prototype has been declared. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What compilation error does the following raise?

void foo();

int main(void) { foo(1); }

Back: N/A. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Is the following a prototype, declaration, both, or neither?

void f();

Back: A declaration. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Is the following a prototype, declaration, both, or neither?

void f(void);

Back: Both. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What compilation error does the following raise?

void foo(void);

Back: N/A. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What compilation error does the following raise?

void foo(void);

int main(void) { foo(1); }

Back: Too many arguments to function call foo. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What function prototype is declared in the following?

void foo(int x, int y);

Back: void foo(int, int) Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What function prototype is declared in the following?

void foo(int x, int y) {}

Back: void foo(int, int) Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic How many arguments does the following declaration specify?

void foo();

Back: Some number unknown to the compiler. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic How many arguments does the following declaration specify?

void foo(void);

Back: Zero. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Why might the following snippet raise a compilation error?

int foo();
int foo(int a);

Back: N/A. It likely wouldn't. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Why might the following snippet raise a compilation error?

int foo();
int foo(float a);

Back: Conflicting types. The first foo declares any float passed to it default promotes to a double. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Why might the following snippet raise a compilation error?

int foo();
int foo(char a);

Back: Conflicting types. The first foo declares any char passed to it default promotes to an int. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Why might the following snippet raise a compilation error?

int foo();
int foo(double a);

Back: N/A. It likely wouldn't. Reference: “ISO: Programming Languages - C17,” April 2017, https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/abq/c17_updated_proposed_fdis.pdf.

END%%

main

main is a special function serving as the entrypoint to C programs. It can have several different prototypes, but the following two are always possible:

int main(void);
int main(int argc, char* argv[argc+1]);

The only two return values guaranteed to work on all platform is EXIT_SUCCESS and EXIT_FAILURE. Reaching the end of main is equivalent to a reutrn with value EXIT_SUCCESS.

%%ANKI Basic Which function serves as the entrypoint of C programs? Back: main Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic How many possible valid prototypes of main are available? Back: Indeterminate. Depends on the system. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic How many "official" prototypes of main are available? Back: Two. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What are the "official" prototypes of main? Back:

int main(void);
int main(int argc, char* argv[argc + 1]);

Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What are the "official" prototypes of main? Back:

int main(void);
int main(int argc, char* argv[argc + 1]);

Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020). END%%

%%ANKI Basic What are the only portable values that main can return? Back: EXIT_SUCCESS and EXIT_FAILURE. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which library defines EXIT_SUCCESS? Back: <stdlib.h> Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which library defines EXIT_FAILURE? Back: <stdlib.h> Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What happens when main does not explicitly return a value? Back: EXIT_SUCCESS is implicitly returned. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Cloze Returning {1:s} in {1:main} is equivalent to invoking function {2:exit} with argument {2:s}. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which library declares the following prototype?

noreturn void exit(int)

Back: <stdlib.h> Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What does keyword _Noreturn indicate? Back: The associated callee will never return control back to the caller. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What kind of syntactical construct is _Noreturn? Back: A special keyword. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic What kind of syntactical construct is noreturn? Back: A macro. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Cloze {1:_Noreturn} is a {2:keyword} whereas {2:noreturn} is a {1:macro}. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Which library is noreturn defined in? Back: <stdnoreturn.h> Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Consider the following prototype. What is the value of argv[0]?

int main(int argc, char* argv[argc + 1]);

Back: The name of the program invocation. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Consider the following prototype. What is the value of argv[argc]?

int main(int argc, char* argv[argc + 1]);

Back: 0 Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Consider the following prototype. What is the value of argv[1]?

int main(int argc, char* argv[argc + 1]);

Back: 0 if argc == 1 else the first argument to the program. Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Consider the following prototype. What is the minimum value of argc?

int main(int argc, char* argv[argc + 1]);

Back: 1 Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Consider the following prototype. What is the minimum length of argv?

int main(int argc, char* argv[argc + 1]);

Back: 2 Reference: Jens Gustedt, Modern C (Shelter Island, NY: Manning Publications Co, 2020).

END%%

Variable-Length Arrays

Within a function prototype, a parameter can denote a c17/types/index#Variable-Length using [*] syntax. For example, the following prototypes are all (more or less) equivalent:

int sum2d(int  , int  , int a[*][*]);
int sum2d(int n, int  , int a[n][*]);
int sum2d(int  , int m, int a[*][m]);
int sum2d(int n, int m, int a[n][m]);
int sum2d(int  , int  , int a[][*]);
int sum2d(int  , int  , int (*a)[*]);
int sum2d(int  , int m, int (*a)[m]);

%%ANKI Basic In what context are VLAs declared with [*] actually useful? Back: Function prototypes. Reference: https://stackoverflow.com/a/17371914

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Maintaining array syntax, rewrite the following without parameter names.

int sum2d(int n, int m, int a[n][m]);

Back:

int sum2d(int, int, int a[*][*]);

Reference: https://stackoverflow.com/a/17371914

END%%

%%ANKI Basic Why is the first * considered redundant in the following?

int sum2d(int, int, int a[*][*]);

Back: Array decay. Reference: https://stackoverflow.com/a/17371914

END%%

Precedence Rules

Declarations can be read by complying with the precedence rules outlined below:

Find the name of the declaration.
Obey the following precedence rules:
1. Parentheses grouping together parts of a declaration
2. Postfix operators () and []
3. Prefix operator: the asterisk * denoting "pointer to"
If const and/or volatile keyword is next to a type specifier, it applies to the type specifier. Otherwise it applies to the pointer asterisk on its immediate left.

%%ANKI Basic In the precedence rules for C declarations, what available postfix operators are there? Back: () and []. Reference: Van der Linden, Peter. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets. Programming Languages / C. Mountain View, Cal.: SunSoft Pr, 1994.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic In the precedence rules for C declarations, what available prefix operators are there? Back: Just *. Reference: Van der Linden, Peter. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets. Programming Languages / C. Mountain View, Cal.: SunSoft Pr, 1994.

END%%

%%ANKI Basic In the precedence rules for C declarations, what available type qualifiers are there? Back: const and volatile. Reference: Van der Linden, Peter. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets. Programming Languages / C. Mountain View, Cal.: SunSoft Pr, 1994.

END%%