56 KiB
| title | TARGET DECK | FILE TAGS | tags | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equivalence Transformation | Obsidian::STEM | formal-system::equiv-trans |
|
Overview
Equivalence-transformation is a formal-system/index based on classical truth-functional pred-logic developed by David Gries. It is the foundation upon which pred-trans are based.
%%ANKI Basic Who is the author of "The Science of Programming"? Back: David Gries Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Cloze
Gries replaces logical operator {\Leftrightarrow} in favor of {=}.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What Lean theorem justifies Gries' choice of = over \Leftrightarrow?
Back: propext
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
Tags: lean
END%%
%%ANKI Basic What are the two calculi Gries describes equivalence-transformation with? Back: A formal system and a system of evaluation. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
A prop-logic is said to be a tautology if it evaluates to T in every state it is well-defined in. We say propositions E1 and E2 are equivalent if E1 = E2 is a tautology. In this case, we say E1 = E2 is an equivalence.
%%ANKI Basic What does it mean for a proposition to be a tautology? Back: That the proposition is true in every state it is well-defined in. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is tautology e written equivalently with a quantifier?
Back: For free identifiers i_1, \ldots, i_n in e, as \forall (i_1, \ldots, i_n), e.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic The term "equivalent" refers to a comparison between what two objects? Back: Expressions. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What does it mean for two propositions to be equivalent?
Back: Given propositions E1 and E2, it means E1 = E2 is a tautology.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is an equivalence?
Back: Given propositions E1 and E2, tautology E1 = E2.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is \Rightarrow written in terms of other logical operators?
Back: p \Rightarrow q is equivalent to \neg p \lor q.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is \Leftrightarrow/= written in terms of other logical operators?
Back: p \Leftrightarrow q is equivalent to (p \Rightarrow q) \land (q \Rightarrow p).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic What distinguishes an equality from an equivalence? Back: An equivalence is an equality that is also a tautology. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Axioms
Commutativity
For propositions E1 and E2:
(E1 \land E2) = (E2 \land E1)(E1 \lor E2) = (E2 \lor E1)(E1 = E2) = (E2 = E1)
%%ANKI
Basic
Which of the basic logical operators do the commutative laws apply to?
Back: \land, \lor, and =
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic What do the commutative laws allow us to do? Back: Reorder operands. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the commutative law of e.g. \land?
Back: E1 \land E2 = E2 \land E1
END%%
Associativity
For propositions E1, E2, and E3:
E1 \land (E2 \land E3) = (E1 \land E2) \land E3E1 \lor (E2 \lor E3) = (E1 \lor E2) \lor E3
%%ANKI
Basic
Which of the basic logical operators do the associative laws apply to?
Back: \land and \lor
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic What do the associative laws allow us to do? Back: Remove parentheses. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the associative law of e.g. \land?
Back: E1 \land (E2 \land E3) = (E1 \land E2) \land E3
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Distributivity
For propositions E1, E2, and E3:
E1 \lor (E2 \land E3) = (E1 \lor E2) \land (E1 \lor E3)E1 \land (E2 \lor E3) = (E1 \land E2) \lor (E1 \land E3)
%%ANKI
Basic
Which of the basic logical operators do the distributive laws apply to?
Back: \land and \lor
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic What do the distributive laws allow us to do? Back: "Factor" propositions. Reference: Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the distributive law of e.g. \land over \lor?
Back: E1 \land (E2 \lor E3) = (E1 \land E2) \lor (E1 \land E3)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
De Morgan's
For propositions E1 and E2:
\neg (E1 \land E2) = \neg E1 \lor \neg E2\neg (E1 \lor E2) = \neg E1 \land \neg E2
%%ANKI
Basic
Which of the basic logical operators do De Morgan's laws involve?
Back: \neg, \land, and \lor
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is De Morgan's law (distributing \land) expressed as an equivalence?
Back: \neg (E1 \land E2) = \neg E1 \lor \neg E2
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Law of Negation
For any proposition E1, it follows that \neg (\neg E1) = E1.
%%ANKI
Basic
How is the law of negation expressed as an equivalence?
Back: \neg (\neg E1) = E1
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Law of Excluded Middle
For any proposition E1, it follows that E1 \lor \neg E1 = T.
%%ANKI
Basic
Which of the basic logical operators does the law of excluded middle involve?
Back: \lor
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is the law of excluded middle expressed as an equivalence?
Back: E1 \lor \neg E1 = T
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic "This sentence is false" questions which classical principle? Back: The law of excluded middle. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Law of Contradiction
For any proposition E1, it follows that E1 \land \neg E1 = F.
%%ANKI
Basic
Which of the basic logical operators does the law of contradiction involve?
Back: \land
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is the law of contradiction expressed as an equivalence?
Back: E1 \land \neg E1 = F
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Cloze
The law of {1:excluded middle} is to {2:\lor} whereas the law of {2:contradiction} is to {1:\land}.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic What does the principle of explosion state? Back: That any statement can be proven from a contradiction. Reference: “Principle of Explosion,” in Wikipedia, July 3, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Principle_of_explosion.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is the principle of explosion stated in first-order logic?
Back: \forall P, F \Rightarrow P
Reference: “Principle of Explosion,” in Wikipedia, July 3, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Principle_of_explosion.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What does the law of contradiction say?
Back: For any proposition P, it holds that \neg (P \land \neg P).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic How does the principle of explosion relate to the law of contradiction? Back: If a contradiction could be proven, then anything can be proven. Reference: “Principle of Explosion,” in Wikipedia, July 3, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Principle_of_explosion.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Suppose P and \neg P. Show schematically how to use the principle of explosion to prove Q.
Back: \begin{align*} P \ \neg P \ P \lor Q \ \hline Q \end{align*}$$Reference: “Principle of Explosion,” in Wikipedia, July 3, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Principle_of_explosion.
END%%
%%ANKI Cloze The law of {contradiction} and law of {excluded middle} create a dichotomy in "logical space". Reference: “Law of Noncontradiction,” in Wikipedia, June 14, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_noncontradiction.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic Which property of partitions is analagous to the law of contradiction on "logical space"? Back: Disjointedness. Reference: “Law of Noncontradiction,” in Wikipedia, June 14, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_noncontradiction.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic Which property of partitions is analagous to the law of excluded middle on "logical space"? Back: Exhaustiveness. Reference: “Law of Noncontradiction,” in Wikipedia, June 14, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_noncontradiction.
END%%
%%ANKI Cloze The law of {1:contradiction} is to "{2:mutually exclusive}" whereas the law of {2:excluded middle} is "{1:jointly exhaustive}". Reference: “Law of Noncontradiction,” in Wikipedia, June 14, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_noncontradiction.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic Which logical law proves equivalence of the law of contradiction and excluded middle? Back: De Morgan's law. Reference: “Law of Noncontradiction,” in Wikipedia, June 14, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_noncontradiction.
END%%
Law of Implication
For any propositions E1 and E2, it follows that E1 \Rightarrow E2 = \neg E1 \lor E2.
Law of Equality
For any propositions E1 and E2, it follows that (E1 = E2) = (E1 \Rightarrow E2) \land (E2 \Rightarrow E1).
Law of Or-Simplification
For any propositions E1 and E2, it follows that:
E1 \lor E1 = E1E1 \lor T = TE1 \lor F = E1E1 \lor (E1 \land E2) = E1
Law of And-Simplification
For any propositions E1 and E2, it follows that:
E1 \land E1 = E1E1 \land T = E1E1 \land F = FE1 \land (E1 \lor E2) = E1
Law of Identity
For any proposition E1, E1 = E1.
Inference Rules
- Rule of Substitution
- Let
P(r)be a predicate andE1 = E2be an equivalence. ThenP(E1) = P(E2)is an equivalence.
- Let
- Rule of Transitivity
- Let
E1 = E2andE2 = E3be equivalences. ThenE1 = E3is an equivalence.
- Let
%%ANKI Basic What two inference rules make up the equivalence-transformation formal system? Back: Substitution and transitivity. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic Which of the two inference rules that make up the equivalence-transformation formal system is redundant? Back: Transitivity. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What does the rule of substitution say in the system of evaluation?
Back: Let P(r) be a predicate and E1 = E2 be an equivalence. Then P(E1) = P(E2) is an equivalence.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic How is the rule of substitution written as an inference rule (in standard form)? Back:
\begin{matrix}
E1 = E2 \\
\hline P(E1) = P(E2)
\end{matrix}
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What does the rule of transitivity state in the system of evaluation?
Back: Let E1 = E2 and E2 = E3. Then E1 = E3.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic How is the rule of transitivity written as an inference rule (in standard form)? Back:
\begin{matrix}
E1 = E2, E2 = E3 \\
\hline E1 = E3
\end{matrix}
END%%
%%ANKI Cloze The system of evaluation has {equivalences} whereas the formal system has {theorems}. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic What is a "theorem" in the equivalence-transformation formal system? Back: An equivalence derived from the axioms and inference rules. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic How is e.g. the Law of Implication proven in the system of evaluation? Back: With truth tables. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic How is e.g. the Law of Implication proven in the formal system? Back: It isn't. It is an axiom. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Cloze
The system of evaluation and formal system are connected by the following biconditional: {e is a tautology} iff {e = T is a theorem}.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Cloze
The {1:system of evaluation} is to {2:"e is a tautology"} whereas the {2:formal system} is to {1:"e = T is a theorem"}.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Selectors
A selector denotes a finite sequence of subscript expressions, each enclosed in brackets. \epsilon denotes the empty selector. For example, variable x is equivalently denoted as x \circ \epsilon whereas for array b, b[i] is equivalently denoted as b \circ [i].
Selector update syntax allows specifying a new value with previous subscripted values overridden. For instance, (b; i{:}e) denotes b with b[i] now referring to e. More formally, for any j \in \mathop{domain}(b), (b; i{:}e)[j] = \begin{cases} i = j \rightarrow e \ i \neq j \rightarrow b[j] \end{cases}
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. What does b.lower denote?
Back: The lower subscript bound of the array.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. What does b.upper denote?
Back: The upper subscript bound of the array.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. How is domain(b) defined in set-theoretic notation?
Back: \{i \mid b.lower \leq i \leq b.upper\}
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b[0{:}2] be an array. What is b.lower?
Back: 0
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b[0{:}2] be an array. What is b.upper?
Back: 2
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Execution of b[i] := e of array b in state s yields what new value of b?
Back: b = (b; i{:}s(e))
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let s be a state. What is x in (s; x{:}e)?
Back: An identifier found in s.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let s be a state. What is e in (s; x{:}e)?
Back: An expression.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let s be a state. What is e's type in (s; x{:}e)?
Back: A type matching x's declaration.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. What is x in (b; x{:}e)?
Back: An expression that evaluates to a member of domain(b).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. What is e's type in (b; x{:}e)?
Back: A type matching b's member declaration.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. What case analysis does (b; i{:}e)[j] evaluate to?
Back: (b; i{:}e)[j] = \begin{cases} i = j \rightarrow e \ i \neq j \rightarrow b[j] \end{cases}
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. How is (((b; i{:}e_1); j{:}e_2); k{:}e_3) rewritten without nesting?
Back: As (b; i{:}e_1; j{:}e_2; k{:}e_3)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. How is (b; (i{:}e_1; (j{:}e_2; (k{:}e_3)))) rewritten without nesting?
Back: N/A. This is invalid syntax.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. How is (b; i{:}e_1; j{:}e_2; k{:}e_3) rewritten with nesting?
Back: As (((b; i{:}e_1); j{:}e_2); k{:}e_3).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. What does (b; i{:}2; i{:}3; i{:}4)[i] evaluate to?
Back: 4
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. How is (b; 0{:}8; 2{:}9; 0{:}7)[1] simplified?
Back: As b[1].
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic According to Gries, what is the traditional interpretation of an array? Back: As a collection of subscripted independent variables (with a common name). Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic According to Gries, what is the new interpretation of an array? Back: As a function. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What propositional expression results from eliminating (b; \ldots) notation from (b; i{:}5)[j] = 5?
Back: (i = j \land 5 = 5) \lor (i \neq j \land b[j] = 5)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What logical axiom is used when eliminating (b; \ldots) notation from e.g. (b; i{:}5)[j] = 5?
Back: The Law of the Excluded Middle.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Cloze
For state s and array b, {(s; x{:}s(x))} is analagous to {(b; i{:}b[i])}.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the simplification of (b; i{:}b[i]; j{:}b[j]; k{:}b[j])?
Back: (b; k{:}b[j])
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given array b, what terminology does Gries use to describe i{:}j in e.g. b[i{:}j]?
Back: A section.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given array b, how many elements are in section b[i{:}j]?
Back: j - i + 1
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given array b and fixed j, what is the largest possible value of i in b[i{:}j]?
Back: j + 1
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given array b, how many elements are in b[j{+}1{:}j]?
Back: 0
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given array b, what is b[1{:}5] = x an abbreviation for?
Back: \forall i, 1 \leq i \leq 5 \Rightarrow b[i] = x
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given array b, what is b[1{:}k{-}1] < x < b[k{:}n{-}1] an abbreviation for?
Back: (\forall i, 1 \leq i < k \Rightarrow b[i] < x) \land (\forall i, k \leq i < n \Rightarrow x < b[i])
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Generalizing further to all variable types x, \begin{align*} (x; \epsilon{:}e) & = e \ (x; [i] {\circ} s{:}e)[j] & = \begin{cases} i \neq j \rightarrow x[j] \ i = j \rightarrow (x[j]; s{:}e) \end{cases} \end{align*}
%%ANKI Basic What is a selector? Back: A finite sequence of subscript expressions. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given valid expression (x; [i]{\circ}s{:}e), what can be said about i?
Back: i is in the domain of x.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the base case of selector update syntax?
Back: (x; \epsilon{:}e) = e
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is the null selector usually denoted?
Back: \epsilon
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic The null selector is the identity element of what operation? Back: Subscript sequence concatenation. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is assignment x := e rewritten with a selector?
Back: x \circ \epsilon := e
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is x \circ \epsilon := e rewritten using selector update syntax?
Back: x := (x; \epsilon{:}e)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is command x := (x; \epsilon{:}e) more compactly rewritten?
Back: x := e
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What two assignments (i.e. using :=) are used to prove e = (x; \epsilon{:}e)?
Back: x := e and x \circ \epsilon := e.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How do assignments x := e and x \circ \epsilon := e prove e = (x; \epsilon{:}e)?
Back: The assignments have the same effect and the latter can be written as x := (x; \epsilon{:}e).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. How is b[i][j] := e rewritten using selector update syntax?
Back: b := (b; [i][j]{:}e)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array. What does (b; \epsilon{:}g) evaluate to?
Back: g
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array and i = j. What does (b; [i]{\circ}s{:}e)[j] evaluate to?
Back: (b[j]; s{:}e)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Let b be an array and i \neq j. What does (b; [i]{\circ}s{:}e)[j] evaluate to?
Back: b[j]
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Maintaining selector update syntax, how is (c; 1{:}3)[1] more explicitly written with a selector?
Back: (c; [1]{:}3)[1]
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Maintaining selector update syntax, how is (c; 1{:}3)[1] rewritten with [1] commuted as leftward as possible?
Back: (c[1]; \epsilon{:}3)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic Consider selector update syntax. Is precedence left-to-right or right-to-left? Back: Right-to-left. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic What does it mean for selector update syntax to have right-to-left precedence? Back: Rightmost selectors overwrite duplicate selectors. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is (b; s_1{:}e_1; s_2{:}e_2; s_1{:}e_3) simplified?
Back: As (b; s_2{:}e_2; s_1{:}e_3).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Substitution
Textual substitution refers to the replacement of a pred-logic#Identifiers identifier with an expression, introducing parentheses as necessary. This concept amounts to the #Equivalence Rules with different notation.
%%ANKI Basic Textual substitution is derived from what equivalence rule? Back: The substitution rule. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Simple
If x denotes a variable and e an expression, substitution of x by e is denoted as \large{E_e^x}
%%ANKI
Basic
What term refers to x in textual substitution E_e^x?
Back: The reference.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What term refers to e in textual substitution E_e^x?
Back: The expression.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What term refers to both x and e together in textual substitution E_e^x?
Back: The reference-expression pair.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What identifier is guaranteed to not occur freely in E_e^x?
Back: N/A.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What identifier is guaranteed to not occur freely in E_{s(e)}^x?
Back: x
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Why does x not occur freely in E_{s(e)}^x?
Back: Because s(e) evaluates to a constant proposition.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the role of E in textual substitution E_e^x?
Back: It is the expression in which free occurrences of x are replaced.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the role of e in textual substitution E_e^x?
Back: It is the expression that is evaluated and substituted into E.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the role of x in textual substitution E_e^x?
Back: It is the identifier matching free occurrences in E that are replaced.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is textual substitution E_e^x interpreted as a function?
Back: As E(e), where E is a function of x.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Why does Gries prefer notation E_e^x over e.g. E(e)?
Back: The former indicates the identifier to replace.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What two scenarios ensure E_e^x = E is an equivalence?
Back: x = e or no free occurrences of x exist in E.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
If x \neq e, why might E_e^x = E be an equivalence despite x existing in E?
Back: The only occurrences of x in E may be bound.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is required for E_e^x to be valid?
Back: Substitution must result in a syntactically valid expression.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the result of the following? (x < y \land (\forall i : 0 \leq i < n : b[i] < y))_z^x$$
Back: (z < y \land (\forall i : 0 \leq i < n : b[i] < y))
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the result of the following? (x < y \land (\forall i : 0 \leq i < n : b[i] < y))_z^y$$
Back: (x < z \land (\forall i : 0 \leq i < n : b[i] < z))
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the result of the following? (x < y \land (\forall i : 0 \leq i < n : b[i] < y))_z^i$$
Back: (x < y \land (\forall i : 0 \leq i < n : b[i] < y))
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
General
We can generalize textual substitution to operate on a vector of reference-expression pairs, where each reference corresponds to some identifier concatenated with a selector. Let \bar{x} = \langle x_1, \ldots, x_n \rangle denote a vector of identifiers concatenated with selectors and \bar{e} = \langle e_1, \ldots, e_n \rangle denote a vector of expressions. Then textual substitition of \bar{x} with \bar{e} in expression E is denoted as \large{E_{\bar{e}}^{\bar{x}}}
Substitution is defined recursively as follows:
- If each
x_iis a distinct identifier with a null selector, thenE_{\bar{e}}^{\bar{x}}is the simultaneous substitution of\bar{x}with\bar{e}. - Adjacent reference-expression pairs may be permuted as long as they begin with different identifiers. That is, for all distinct
bandc,\Large{E_{\bar{e}, ,f, ,h, ,\bar{g}}^{\bar{x}, ,b, ,c, ,\bar{y}} = E_{\bar{x}, ,h, ,f, ,\bar{g}}^{\bar{x}, ,c, ,b, ,\bar{y}}} - Multiple assignments to subparts of an object
bcan be viewed as a single assignment tob. That is, providedbdoes not begin any of thex_i,\Large{E_{e_1, ,\ldots, ,e_m, ,\bar{g}}^{b ,\circ, s_1, ,\ldots, ,b ,\circ, s_m, ,\bar{x}} = E_{(b; ,s_1{:}e_1; ,\cdots; ,s_m{:}e_m), ,\bar{g}}^{b, ,\bar{x}}}
Note that simultaneous substitution is different from sequential substitution.
%%ANKI
Basic
Consider E_{\bar{e}}^{\bar{x}}. What is each x_i in \bar{x}?
Back: An identifier concatenated with a selector.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Consider E_{\bar{e}}^{\bar{x}}. What is each e_i in \bar{e}?
Back: An expression.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the base case in the evaluation of E_{\bar{e}}^{\bar{x}}?
Back: If \bar{x} are distinct identifiers with null selectors, direct simultaneous substitution.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Which of E_{\bar{e}}^{\bar{x}}'s reference-expression pairs may be moved?
Back: Adjacent pairs with distinct identifiers.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
When is b_1 \circ s_1 and b_2 \circ s_2 said to have distinct identifiers?
Back: When b_1 \neq b_2.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
When is b_1 \circ s_1 and b_2 \circ s_2 said to have distinct selectors?
Back: When s_1 \neq s_2.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Suppose x and y are distinct. Is the following a tautology? \large{E_{e_1, e_2}^{x, y} = E_{e_2, e_1}^{y, x}}
Back: Yes.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
When is the following a tautology? \large{E_{e_1, e_2}^{x, y} = E_{e_2, e_1}^{y, x}}
Back: When x and y refer to distinct identifiers.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Suppose x = y. When is the following a tautology? \large{E_{e_1, e_2}^{x, y} = E_{e_2, e_1}^{x, y}}
Back: When e_1 = e_2.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Suppose x, y, and z are distinct. What is the result of a single evaluation step? \large{E_{e_1, e_2, e_3}^{x, y, z}}
Back: N/A.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Suppose x \neq y. What is the result of a single evaluation step? \large{E_{e_1, e_2, e_3}^{x, y, x}}
Back: \large{E_{e_1, e_3, e_2}^{x, x, y}}
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Suppose x \neq y. What is the result of a single evaluation step? \large{E_{e_1, e_3, e_2}^{x, x, y}}
Back: \large{E_{(x; ,\epsilon{:}e_1; ,\epsilon{:}e_3), e_2}^{x, y}}
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Suppose x \neq y. What is the result of a single evaluation step? \large{E_{(x; ,\epsilon{:}e_1; ,\epsilon{:}e_3), e_2}^{x, y}}
Back: \large{E_{e_3, e_2}^{x, y}}
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Suppose x \neq y. Why isn't the following a tautology? \large{E_{e_1, e_2, e_3}^{x, y, x}} = E_{(x; \epsilon{:}e_1), e_2, e_3}^{x, y, x}
Back: N/A. It is.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Suppose x \neq y. Why isn't the following a tautology? \large{E_{e_1, e_2, e_3, e_4}^{x, x, y, x}} = E_{(x; \epsilon{:}e_1; \epsilon{:}e_2), e_3, e_4}^{x, y, x}
Back: Because not every x was made adjacent before grouping.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Consider array b and i \in \mathop{domain}(b). What is the result of a single evaluation step? \large{E_{e}^{b[i]}}
Back: \large{E_{(b; [i]{:}e)}^{b}}
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Consider identifier x, array b and i \in \mathop{domain}(b). What is the result of a single evaluation step? \large{E_{b[i]}^{x}}
Back: N/A.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Theorems
(E_u^x)_v^x = E_{u_v^x}^x- The only possible free occurrences of
xthat may appear after the first of the substitutions occur inu.
- The only possible free occurrences of
%%ANKI
Basic
How do we simplify (E_u^x)_v^x?
Back: As E_{u_v^x}^x
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is E_{u_v^x}^x rewritten as sequential substitution?
Back: As (E_u^x)_v^x
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Why is (E_u^x)_v^x = E_{u_v^x}^x an equivalence?
Back: After the first substitution, the only possible free occurrences of x are in u.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
- If
y \not\in FV(E), then(E_u^x)_v^y = E_{u_v^y}^x.ymay not be free inEbut substitutingxwithucan introduce a free occurrence. It doesn't matter if we perform the substitution first or second though.
%%ANKI
Basic
In what two scenarios is (E_u^x)_v^y = E_{u_v^y}^x always an equivalence?
Back: x = y or y is not free in E.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
If x \neq y, when is (E_u^x)_v^y = E_{u_v^y}^x?
Back: When y is not free in E.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Why does y \not\in FV(E) ensure (E_u^x)_v^y = E_{u_v^y}^x is an equivalence?
Back: If it were, a v would exist in the LHS that doesn't in the RHS.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How does Gries denote state s with identifer x set to value v?
Back: (s; x{:}v)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How is (s; x{:}v) written instead using set-theoretical notation?
Back: (s - \{\langle x, s(x) \rangle\}) \cup \{\langle x, v \rangle\}
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Execution of x := e in state s terminates in what new state?
Back: (s; x{:}s(e))
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given state s, what statement does (s; x{:}s(e)) derive from?
Back: x := e
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What missing value guarantees state s satisfies equivalence s = (s; x{:}\_)?
Back: s(x)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given state s, why is it that s = (s; x{:}s(x))?
Back: Evaluating x in state s yields s(x).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
s(E_e^x) = s(E_{s(e)}^x)- Substituting
xwitheand then evaluating is the same as substitutingxwith the evaluation ofe.
- Substituting
%%ANKI
Basic
How can we simplify s(E_{s(e)}^x)?
Back: As s(E_e^x)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given state s, what equivalence relates E_e^x with E_{s(e)}^x?
Back: s(E_e^x) = s(E_{s(e)}^x)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
- Let
sbe a state ands' = (s; x{:}s(e)). Thens'(E) = s(E_e^x).
%%ANKI
Cloze
Let s be a state and s' = ({s; x{:}s(e)}). Then s'({E}) = s({E_e^x}).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
If s' = (s; x{:}s(e)), then s'(E) = s(E_e^x). Why do we not say s' = (s; x{:}e) instead?
Back: The value of a state's identifier must always be a constant proposition.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
How do you define s' such that s(E_e^x) = s'(E)?
Back: s' = (s; x{:}s(e)).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given defined value v \neq s(x), when is s(E) = (s; x{:}v)(E)?
Back: When x is not free in E.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
- Given identifiers
\bar{x}and fresh identifiers\bar{u},(E_{\bar{u}}^{\bar{x}})_{\bar{x}}^{\bar{u}} = E.
%%ANKI
Basic
When is (E_{\bar{u}}^{\bar{x}})_{\bar{x}}^{\bar{u}} = E guaranteed to be an equivalence?
Back: When \bar{x} and \bar{u} refer to distinct identifiers (concatenated with selectors).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
States
A state is a function that maps identifiers to T or F. A proposition can be equivalently seen as a representation of the set of states in which it is true.
%%ANKI Basic What is a state? Back: A function mapping identifiers to values. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Is (b \land c) well-defined in \{\langle b, T \rangle, \langle c, F \rangle\}?
Back: Yes.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Is (b \lor d) well-defined in \{\langle b, T \rangle, \langle c, F \rangle\}?
Back: No.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic A proposition is well-defined with respect to what? Back: A state to evaluate against. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What proposition represents states \{(b, T), (c, T)\} and \{(b, F), (c, F)\}?
Back: (b \land c) \lor (\neg b \land \neg c)
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What set of states does proposition a \land b represent?
Back: \{\{\langle a, T \rangle, \langle b, T \rangle\}\}
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What set of states does proposition a \lor b represent?
Back: \{\{\langle a, T \rangle, \langle b, T \rangle\}, \{\langle a, T \rangle, \langle b, F \rangle\}, \{\langle a, F \rangle, \langle b, T \rangle\}\}
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is sloppy about phrase "the states in b \lor \neg c"?
Back: b \lor \neg c is not a set but a representation of a set (of states).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the weakest proposition?
Back: T
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What set of states does T represent?
Back: The set of all states.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is the strongest proposition?
Back: F
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What set of states does F represent?
Back: The set of no states.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI Basic What does a proposition represent? Back: The set of states in which it is true. Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
When is p stronger than q?
Back: When p \Rightarrow q.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
If p \Rightarrow q, which of p or q is considered stronger?
Back: p
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
When is p weaker than q?
Back: When q \Rightarrow p.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
If p \Rightarrow q, which of p or q is considered weaker?
Back: q
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Why is b \land c stronger than b \lor c?
Back: The former represents a subset of the states the latter represents.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Given sets a and b, a = b is equivalent to the conjunction of what two expressions?
Back: a \subseteq b and b \subseteq a.
Reference: Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Cloze
{a \Rightarrow b} is to propositional logic as {a \subseteq b} is to sets.
Reference: Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Cloze
{a \Leftrightarrow b} is to propositional logic as {a = b} is to sets.
Reference: Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Is (i \geq 0) well-defined in \{(i, -10)\}?
Back: Yes.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
Is (i \geq 0) well-defined in \{(j, -10)\}?
Back: No.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What predicate represents states \{(i, 0), (i, 2), (i, 4), \ldots\}?
Back: i \geq 0 is even.
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
%%ANKI
Basic
What is sloppy about phrase "the states in i + j = 0"?
Back: i + j = 0 is not a set but a representation of a set (of states).
Reference: Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.
END%%
Bibliography
- Avigad, Jeremy. ‘Theorem Proving in Lean’, n.d.
- Gries, David. The Science of Programming. Texts and Monographs in Computer Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981.