\documentclass{report} \usepackage{graphicx} \graphicspath{{./Set/images/}} \input{../../preamble} \makeleancommands{../..} \newcommand{\dom}[1]{\textop{dom}{#1}} \newcommand{\fld}[1]{\textop{fld}{#1}} \newcommand{\ran}[1]{\textop{ran}{#1}} \newcommand{\img}[2]{#1\left\llbracket#2\right\rrbracket} \begin{document} \header{Elements of Set Theory}{Herbert B. Enderton} \tableofcontents \begingroup \renewcommand\thechapter{R} \setcounter{chapter}{0} \addtocounter{chapter}{-1} \chapter{Reference}% \label{chap:reference} \section{\partial{Axiom of Choice, First Form}}% \label{ref:axiom-of-choice-1} For any relation $R$ there is a function $H \subseteq R$ with $\dom{H} = \dom{R}$. \section{\partial{Axiom of Choice, Second Form}}% \label{ref:axiom-of-choice-2} For any set $I$ and any function $H$ with domain $I$, if $H(i) \neq \emptyset$ for all $i \in I$, then $$\bigtimes_{i \in I} H(i) \neq \emptyset.$$ \section{\defined{Composition}}% \label{ref:composition} The \textbf{composition} of sets $F$ and $G$ is $$F \circ G = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid \exists t(uGt \land tFv)\}.$$ \begin{definition} \lean*{Common/Set/Relation}{Set.Relation.comp} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Domain}}% \label{ref:domain} Given \nameref{ref:relation} $R$, the \textbf{domain} of $R$, denoted $\dom{R}$, is given by $$x \in \dom{R} \iff \exists y \left< x, y \right> \in R.$$ \begin{definition} \lean*{Common/Set/Relation}{Set.Relation.dom} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Empty Set Axiom}}% \label{ref:empty-set-axiom} There is a set having no members: $$\exists B, \forall x, x \not\in B.$$ \begin{axiom} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.emptyCollection} \end{axiom} \section{\partial{Equivalence Relation}}% \label{ref:equivalence-relation} Relation $R$ is an \textbf{equivalence relation} if and only if $R$ is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. \section{\defined{Extensionality Axiom}}% \label{ref:extensionality-axiom} If two sets have exactly the same members, then they are equal: $$\forall A, \forall B, \left[\forall x, (x \in A \iff x \in B) \Rightarrow A = B\right].$$ \begin{axiom} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.ext} \end{axiom} \section{\defined{Field}}% \label{ref:field} Given \nameref{ref:relation} $R$, the \textbf{field} of $R$, denoted $\fld{R}$, is given by $$\fld{R} = \dom{R} \cup \ran{R}.$$ \begin{definition} \lean*{Common/Set/Relation}{Set.Relation.fld} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Function}}% \label{ref:function} A \textbf{function} is a relation $F$ such that for each $x$ in $\dom{F}$ there is only one $y$ such that $xFy$. In other words, $F$ is \textbf{single-valued}. We say that $F$ is a function \textbf{from $A$ into $B$} or that $F$ \textbf{maps $A$ into $B$} (written $F \colon A \rightarrow B$) iff $F$ is a function, $\dom{F} = A$, and $\ran{F} \subseteq B$. If $\ran{F} = B$, then $F$ is a function from \textbf{$A$ onto $B$}. A function $F$ is \textbf{one-to-one} iff for each $y \in \ran{F}$ there is only one $x$ such that $xFy$. One-to-one functions are sometimes called \textbf{injections}. \begin{definition} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Function}{Function.Injective} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Function}{Function.Surjective} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Function}{Function.Bijective} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Image}}% \label{ref:image} Let $A$ and $F$ be arbitrary sets. The \textbf{image of $A$ under $F$} is the set \begin{align*} \img{F}{A} & = \ran{(F \restriction A)} \\ & = \{v \mid (\exists u \in A) uFv\}. \end{align*} \begin{definition} \lean*{Common/Set/Relation}{Set.Relation.image} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Inverse}}% \label{ref:inverse} The \textbf{inverse} of a set $F$ is the set $$F^{-1} = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid vFu\}.$$ \begin{definition} \lean*{Common/Set/Relation}{Set.Relation.inv} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Ordered Pair}}% \label{ref:ordered-pair} For any sets $u$ and $v$, the \textbf{ordered pair} $\left< u, v \right>$ is the set $\{\{u\}, \{u, v\}\}$. \begin{definition} \lean*{Common/Set/OrderedPair}{OrderedPair} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Pair Set}}% \label{ref:pair-set} For any sets $u$ and $v$, the \textbf{pair set $\{u, v\}$} is the set whose only members are $u$ and $v$. \begin{definition} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.insert} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.singleton} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Pairing Axiom}}% \label{ref:pairing-axiom} For any sets $u$ and $v$, there is a set having as members just $u$ and $v$: $$\forall u, \forall v, \exists B, \forall x, (x \in B \iff x = u \text{ or } x = v).$$ \begin{axiom} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.insert} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.singleton} \end{axiom} \section{\defined{Power Set}}% \label{ref:power-set} For any set $a$, the \textbf{power set $\powerset{a}$} is the set whose members are exactly the subsets of $a$. \begin{definition} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.powerset} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Power Set Axiom}}% \label{ref:power-set-axiom} For any set $a$, there is a set whose members are exactly the subsets of $a$: $$\forall a, \exists B, \forall x, (x \in B \iff x \subseteq a).$$ \begin{axiom} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.powerset} \end{axiom} \section{\defined{Range}}% \label{ref:range} Given \nameref{ref:relation} $R$, the \textbf{range} of $R$, denoted $\ran{R}$, is given by $$x \in \ran{R} \iff \exists t \left< t, x \right> \in R.$$ \begin{definition} \lean*{Common/Set/Relation}{Set.Relation.ran} \end{definition} \section{\partial{Reflexive Relation}}% \label{ref:reflexive-relation} A binary relation $R$ is \textbf{reflexive} on $A$ if and only if $xRx$ for all $x \in A$. \section{\defined{Relation}}% \label{ref:relation} A \textbf{relation} is a set of \nameref{ref:ordered-pair}s. \begin{definition} \lean*{Common/Set/Relation}{Set.Relation} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Restriction}}% \label{ref:restriction} The \textbf{restriction} of a set $F$ to set $A$ is the set $$F \restriction A = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid uFv \land u \in A\}.$$ \begin{definition} \lean*{Common/Set/Relation}{Set.Relation.restriction} \end{definition} \section{\defined{Subset Axioms}}% \label{ref:subset-axioms} For each formula $\phi$ not containing $B$, the following is an axiom: $$\forall t_1, \cdots \forall t_k, \forall c, \exists B, \forall x, (x \in B \iff x \in c \land \phi).$$ \begin{axiom} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.Subset} \end{axiom} \section{\partial{Symmetric Relation}}% \label{ref:symmetric-relation} A binary relation $R$ is \textbf{symmetric} on $A$ if and only if whenever $xRy$ then $yRx$. \section{\defined{Symmetric Difference}}% \label{ref:symmetric-difference} The \textbf{symmetric difference} $A + B$ of sets $A$ and $B$ is the set $(A - B) \cup (B - A)$. \begin{definition} \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{symmDiff\_def} \end{definition} \section{\partial{Transitive Relation}}% \label{ref:transitive-relation} A binary relation $R$ is \textbf{transitive} on $A$ if and only if whenever $xRy$ and $yRz$, then $xRz$. \section{\defined{Union Axiom}}% \label{ref:union-axiom} For any set $A$, there exists a set $B$ whose elements are exactly the members of the members of $A$: $$\forall A, \exists B, \forall x \left[ x \in B \iff (\exists b \in A) x \in b \right]$$ \begin{axiom} \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Lattice}{Set.sUnion} \end{axiom} \section{\defined{Union Axiom, Preliminary Form}}% \label{ref:union-axiom-preliminary-form} For any sets $a$ and $b$, there is a set whose members are those sets belonging either to $a$ or to $b$ (or both): $$\forall a, \forall b, \exists B, \forall x, (x \in B \iff x \in a \text{ or } x \in b).$$ \begin{axiom} \lean*{Mathlib/Init/Set}{Set.union} \end{axiom} \endgroup \chapter{Introduction}% \label{chap:introduction} \section{Exercises 1}% \label{sec:exercises-1} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 1.1}}% \label{sub:exercise-1.1} Which of the following become true when "$\in$" is inserted in place of the blank? Which become true when "$\subseteq$" is inserted? \subsubsection{\verified{Exercise 1.1a}}% \label{ssub:exercise-1.1a} $\{\emptyset\} \_\_\_\_ \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_1} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_1.exercise\_1\_1a} Because the \textit{object} $\{\emptyset\}$ is a member of the right-hand set, the statement is \textbf{true} in the case of "$\in$". Because the \textit{members} of $\{\emptyset\}$ are all members of the right-hand set, the statement is also \textbf{true} in the case of "$\subseteq$". \end{proof} \subsubsection{\verified{Exercise 1.1b}}% \label{ssub:exercise-1.11b} $\{\emptyset\} \_\_\_\_ \{\emptyset, \{\{\emptyset\}\}\}$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_1} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_1.exercise\_1\_1b} Because the \textit{object} $\{\emptyset\}$ is not a member of the right-hand set, the statement is \textbf{false} in the case of "$\in$". Because the \textit{members} of $\{\emptyset\}$ are all members of the right-hand set, the statement is \textbf{true} in the case of "$\subseteq$". \end{proof} \subsubsection{\verified{Exercise 1.1c}}% \label{ssub:exercise-1.1c} $\{\{\emptyset\}\} \_\_\_\_ \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_1} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_1.exercise\_1\_1c} Because the \textit{object} $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$ is not a member of the right-hand set, the statement is \textbf{false} in the case of "$\in$". Because the \textit{members} of $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$ are all members of the right-hand set, the statement is \textbf{true} in the case of "$\subseteq$". \end{proof} \subsubsection{\verified{Exercise 1.1d}}% \label{ssub:exercise-1.1d} $\{\{\emptyset\}\} \_\_\_\_ \{\emptyset, \{\{\emptyset\}\}\}$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_1} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_1.exercise\_1\_1d} Because the \textit{object} $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$ is a member of the right-hand set, the statement is \textbf{true} in the case of "$\in$". Because the \textit{members} of $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$ are not all members of the right-hand set, the statement is \textbf{false} in the case of "$\subseteq$". \end{proof} \subsubsection{\verified{Exercise 1.1e}}% \label{ssub:exercise-1.1e} $\{\{\emptyset\}\} \_\_ \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\}$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_1} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_1.exercise\_1\_1e} Because the \textit{object} $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$ is not a member of the right-hand set, the statement is \textbf{false} in the case of "$\in$". Because the \textit{members} of $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$ are not all members of the right-hand set, the statement is \textbf{false} in the case of "$\subseteq$". \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 1.2}}% \label{sub:exercise-1.2} Show that no two of the three sets $\emptyset$, $\{\emptyset\}$, and $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$ are equal to each other. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_1} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_1.exercise\_1\_2} By the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, $\emptyset$ is only equal to $\emptyset$. This immediately shows it is not equal to the other two. Now consider object $\emptyset$. This object is a member of $\{\emptyset\}$ but is not a member of $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$. Again, by the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, these two sets must be different. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 1.3}}% \label{sub:exercise-1.3} Show that if $B \subseteq C$, then $\powerset{B} \subseteq \powerset{C}$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_1} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_1.exercise\_1\_3} Let $x \in \powerset{B}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $x$ is a subset of $B$. By hypothesis, $B \subseteq C$. Then $x \subseteq C$. Again by definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, it follows $x \in \powerset{C}$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 1.4}}% \label{sub:exercise-1.4} Assume that $x$ and $y$ are members of a set $B$. Show that $\{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\} \in \powerset{\powerset{B}}.$ \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_1} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_1.exercise\_1\_4} Let $x$ and $y$ be members of set $B$. Then $\{x\}$ and $\{x, y\}$ are subsets of $B$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $\{x\}$ and $\{x, y\}$ are members of $\powerset{B}$. Then $\{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}$ is a subset of $\powerset{B}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $\{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}$ is a member of $\powerset{\powerset{B}}$. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Exercise 1.5}}% \label{sub:exercise-1.5} Define the rank of a set $c$ to be the least $\alpha$ such that $c \subseteq V_\alpha$. Compute the rank of $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$. Compute the rank of $\{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\}$. \begin{proof} We first compute the values of $V_n$ for $0 \leq n \leq 3$ under the assumption the set of atoms $A$ at the bottom of the hierarchy is empty. \begin{align*} V_0 & = \emptyset \\ V_1 & = V_0 \cup \powerset{V_0} \\ & = \emptyset \cup \{\emptyset\} \\ & = \{\emptyset\} \\ V_2 & = V_1 \cup \powerset{V_1} \\ & = \{\emptyset\} \cup \powerset{\{\emptyset\}} \\ & = \{\emptyset\} \cup \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\} \\ & = \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\} \\ V_3 & = V_2 \cup \powerset{V_2} \\ & = \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\} \cup \powerset{\{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}} \\ & = \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\} \cup \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}, \{\{\emptyset\}\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\} \\ & = \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}, \{\{\emptyset\}\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\} \end{align*} It then immediately follows $\{\{\emptyset\}\}$ has rank $2$ and $\{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\}$ has rank $3$. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Exercise 1.6}}% \label{sub:exercise-1.6} We have stated that $V_{\alpha + 1} = A \cup \powerset{V_\alpha}$. Prove this at least for $\alpha < 3$. \begin{proof} Let $A$ be the set of atoms in our set hierarchy. Let $P(n)$ be the predicate, "$V_{n + 1} = A \cup \powerset{V_n}$." We prove $P(n)$ holds true for all natural numbers $n \geq 1$ via induction. \paragraph{Base Case}% Let $n = 1$. By definition, $V_1 = V_0 \cup \powerset{V_0}$. By definition, $V_0 = A$. Therefore $V_1 = A \cup \powerset{V_0}$. This proves $P(1)$ holds true. \paragraph{Induction Step}% Suppose $P(n)$ holds true for some $n \geq 1$. Consider $V_{n+1}$. By definition, $V_{n+1} = V_n \cup \powerset{V_n}$. Therefore, by the induction hypothesis, \begin{align} V_{n+1} & = V_n \cup \powerset{V_n} \nonumber \\ & = (A \cup \powerset{V_{n-1}}) \cup \powerset{V_n} \nonumber \\ & = A \cup (\powerset{V_{n-1}} \cup \powerset{V_n}) \label{sub:exercise-1.6-eq1} \end{align} But $V_{n-1}$ is a subset of $V_n$. \nameref{sub:exercise-1.3} then implies $\powerset{V_{n-1}} \subseteq \powerset{V_n}$. This means \eqref{sub:exercise-1.6-eq1} can be simplified to $$V_{n+1} = A \cup \powerset{V_n},$$ proving $P(n+1)$ holds true. \paragraph{Conclusion}% By mathematical induction, it follows for all $n \geq 1$, $P(n)$ is true. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Exercise 1.7}}% \label{sub:exercise-1.7} List all the members of $V_3$. List all the members of $V_4$. (It is to be assumed here that there are no atoms.) \begin{proof} As seen in the proof of \nameref{sub:exercise-1.5}, $$V_3 = \{ \emptyset, \{\emptyset\}, \{\{\emptyset\}\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\} \}.$$ By \nameref{sub:exercise-1.6}, $V_4 = \powerset{V_3}$ (since it is assumed there are no atoms). Thus \begin{align*} & V_4 = \{ \\ & \qquad \emptyset, \\ & \qquad \{\emptyset\}, \\ & \qquad \{\{\emptyset\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\{\{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\emptyset, \{\{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\{\emptyset\}, \{\{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\{\emptyset\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\{\{\emptyset\}\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}, \{\{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\emptyset, \{\{\emptyset\}\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\} \\ & \qquad \{\{\emptyset\}, \{\{\emptyset\}\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\}, \\ & \qquad \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}, \{\{\emptyset\}\}, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}\} \\ & \}. \end{align*} \end{proof} \chapter{Axioms and Operations}% \label{chap:axioms-operations} \section{Axioms}% \label{sec:axioms} \subsection{\partial{Theorem 2A}}% \label{sub:theorem-2a} \begin{theorem}[2A] There is no set to which every set belongs. \note{This was revisited after reading Enderton's proof prior.} \end{theorem} \begin{proof} Let $A$ be an arbitrary set. Define $B = \{ x \in A \mid x \not\in x \}$. By the \nameref{ref:subset-axioms}, $B$ is a set. Then $$B \in B \iff B \in A \land B \not\in B.$$ If $B \in A$, then $B \in B \iff B \not\in B$, a contradiction. Thus $B \not\in A$. Since this process holds for any set $A$, there must exist no set to which every set belongs. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Theorem 2B}}% \label{sub:theorem-2b} \begin{theorem}[2B] For any nonempty set $A$, there exists a unique set $B$ such that for any $x$, $$x \in B \iff x \text{ belongs to every member of } A.$$ \end{theorem} \begin{proof} Suppose $A$ is a nonempty set. This ensures the statement we are trying to prove does not vacuously hold for all sets $x$ (which would yield a contradiction due to \nameref{sub:theorem-2b}). By the \nameref{ref:union-axiom}, $\bigcup A$ is a set. Define $$B = \{ x \in \bigcup A \mid (\forall b \in A), x \in b \}.$$ By the \nameref{ref:subset-axioms}, $B$ is indeed a set. By construction, $$\forall x, x \in B \iff x \text{ belongs to every member of } A.$$ By the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, $B$ is unique. \end{proof} \section{Algebra of Sets}% \label{sec:algebra-sets} \subsection{\verified{Commutative Laws}}% \label{sub:commutative-laws} For any sets $A$ and $B$, \begin{align*} A \cup B = B \cup A \\ A \cap B = B \cap A \end{align*} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.union\_comm} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.inter\_comm} \noindent Let $A$ and $B$ be sets. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $A \cup B = B \cup A$ \item $A \cap B = B \cap A$. \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% By the definition of the union of sets, \begin{align*} A \cup B & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in B \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in B \lor x \in A \} \\ & = B \cup A. \end{align*} \paragraph{(ii)}% By the definition of the intersection of sets, \begin{align*} A \cap B & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in B \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in B \land x \in A \} \\ & = B \land A. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Associative Laws}}% \label{sub:associative-laws} For any sets $A$, $B$ and $C$, \begin{align*} A \cup (B \cup C) & = (A \cup B) \cup C \\ A \cap (B \cap C) & = (A \cap B) \cap C \end{align*} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.union\_assoc} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.inter\_assoc} \noindent Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be sets. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $A \cup (B \cup C) = (A \cup B) \cup C$ \item $A \cap (B \cap C) = (A \cap B) \cap C$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% By the definition of the union of sets, \begin{align*} A \cup (B \cup C) & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in (B \cup C) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in \{ y \mid y \in B \lor C \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor (x \in B \lor x \in C) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \lor x \in B) \lor x \in C \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in \{ y \mid y \in A \lor y \in B \} \lor x \in C \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in (A \cup B) \lor x \in C \} \\ & = (A \cup B) \cup C. \end{align*} \paragraph{(ii)}% By the definition of the intersection of sets, \begin{align*} A \cap (B \cap C) & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in (B \cap C) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in \{ y \mid y \in B \land y \in C \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land (x \in B \land x \in C) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \land x \in B) \land x \in C \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in \{ y \mid y \in A \land y \in B \} \land x \in C \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in (A \cap B) \land x \in C \} \\ & = (A \cap B) \cap C. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Distributive Laws}}% \label{sub:distributive-laws} For any sets $A$, $B$, and $C$, \begin{align*} A \cap (B \cup C) & = (A \cap B) \cup (A \cap C) \\ A \cup (B \cap C) & = (A \cup B) \cap (A \cup C) \end{align*} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.inter\_distrib\_left} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.union\_distrib\_left} \noindent Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be sets. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $A \cap (B \cup C) = (A \cap B) \cup (A \cap C)$ \item $A \cup (B \cap C) = (A \cup B) \cap (A \cup C)$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% By the definition of the union and intersection of sets, \begin{align*} A \cap (B \cup C) & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in B \cup C \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in \{ y \mid y \in B \lor y \in C \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land (x \in B \lor x \in C) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \land x \in B) \lor (x \in A \land x \in C) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \cap B \lor x \in A \cap C \} \\ & = (A \cap B) \cup (A \cap C). \end{align*} \paragraph{(ii)}% By the definition of the union and intersection of sets, \begin{align*} A \cup (B \cap C) & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in B \cap C \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in \{ y \mid y \in B \land y \in C \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor (x \in B \land x \in C) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \lor x \in B) \land (x \in A \lor x \in C) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \cup B \land x \in A \cup C \} \\ & = (A \cup B) \cap (A \cup C). \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{De Morgan's Laws}}% \label{sub:de-morgans-laws} For any sets $A$, $B$, and $C$, \begin{align*} C - (A \cup B) & = (C - A) \cap (C - B) \\ C - (A \cap B) & = (C - A) \cup (C - B) \end{align*} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.diff\_inter\_diff} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.diff\_inter} \noindent Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be sets. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $C - (A \cup B) = (C - A) \cap (C - B)$ \item $C - (A \cap B) = (C - A) \cup (C - B)$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% By definition of the union, intersection, and relative complements of sets, \begin{align*} C - (A \cup B) & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land x \not\in A \cup B \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land x \not\in \{ y \mid y \in A \lor y \in B \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land \neg(x \in A \lor x \in B) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land (x \not\in A \land x \not\in B) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in C \land x \not\in A) \land (x \in C \land x \not\in B) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in (C - A) \land x \in (C - B) \} \\ & = (C - A) \cap (C - B). \end{align*} \paragraph{(ii)}% By definition of the union, intersection, and relative complements of sets, \begin{align*} C - (A \cap B) & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land x \not\in A \cap B \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land x \not\in \{ y \mid y \in A \land y \in B \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land \neg(x \in A \land x \in B) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land (x \not\in A \lor x \not\in B) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in C \land x \not\in A) \lor (x \in C \land x \not\in B) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in (C - A) \lor x \in (C - B) \} \\ & = (C - A) \cup (C - B). \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{% Identities Involving \texorpdfstring{$\emptyset$}{the Empty Set}}}% \label{sub:identitives-involving-empty-set} For any set $A$, \begin{align*} A \cup \emptyset & = A \\ A \cap \emptyset & = \emptyset \\ A \cap (C - A) & = \emptyset \end{align*} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.union\_empty} \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.inter\_empty} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.inter\_diff\_self} \noindent Let $A$ be an arbitrary set. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $A \cup \emptyset = A$ \item $A \cap \emptyset = \emptyset$ \item $A \cap (C - A) = \emptyset$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% By definition of the emptyset and union of sets, \begin{align*} A \cup \emptyset & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in \emptyset \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor F \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \} \\ & = A. \end{align*} \paragraph{(ii)}% By definition of the emptyset and intersection of sets, \begin{align*} A \cap \emptyset & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in \emptyset \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land F \} \\ & = \{ x \mid F \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \neq x \} \\ & = \emptyset. \end{align*} \paragraph{(iii)}% By definition of the emptyset, and the intersection and relative complement of sets, \begin{align*} A \cap (C - A) & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in C - A \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in \{ y \mid y \in C \land y \not\in A \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land (x \in C \land x \not\in A) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land F \} \\ & = \{ x \mid F \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \neq x \} \\ & = \emptyset. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Monotonicity}}% \label{sub:monotonicity} For any sets $A$, $B$, and $C$, \begin{align*} A \subseteq B & \Rightarrow A \cup C \subseteq B \cup C \\ A \subseteq B & \Rightarrow A \cap C \subseteq B \cap C \\ A \subseteq B & \Rightarrow \bigcup A \subseteq \bigcup B \end{align*} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.union\_subset\_union\_left} \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.inter\_subset\_inter\_left} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Lattice}{Set.sUnion\_mono} \noindent Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be arbitrary sets. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $A \subseteq B \Rightarrow A \cup C \subseteq B \cup C$ \item $A \subseteq B \Rightarrow A \cap C \subseteq B \cap C$ \item $A \subseteq B \Rightarrow \bigcup A \subseteq \bigcup B$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% Suppose $A \subseteq B$. Let $x \in A \cup C$. There are two cases to consider. \subparagraph{Case 1}% Suppose $x \in A$. Then, by definition of the subset, $x \in B$. Therefore $x \in B \cup C$. \subparagraph{Case 2}% Suppose $x \in C$. Then $x$ is trivially a member of $B \cup C$. \subparagraph{Conclusion}% Since these cases are exhaustive and both imply $x \in B \cup C$, it follows $A \cup C \subseteq B \cup C$. \paragraph{(ii)}% Suppose $A \subseteq B$. Let $x \in A \cap C$. Then, by definition of the intersection of sets, $x \in A$ and $x \in C$. By definition of the subset, $x \in A$ implies $x \in B$. Therefore $x \in B$ and $x \in C$. That is, $x \in B \cap C$. Since this holds for arbitrary $x \in A \cap C$, it follows $A \cap C \subseteq B \cap C$. \paragraph{(iii)}% Suppose $A \subseteq B$. Let $x \in \bigcup A$. Then, by definition of the union of sets, there exists some $b \in A$ such that $x \in b$. By definition of the subset, $b \in B$ as well. Another application of the definition of the union of sets immediately implies that $x$ is a member of $\bigcup B$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Anti-monotonicity}}% \label{sub:anti-monotonicity} For any sets $A$, $B$, and $C$, \begin{align*} A \subseteq B & \Rightarrow C - B \subseteq C - A \\ \emptyset \neq A \subseteq B & \Rightarrow \bigcap B \subseteq \bigcap A. \end{align*} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.diff\_subset\_diff\_right} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Lattice}{Set.sInter\_subset\_sInter} \noindent Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be arbitrary sets. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $A \subseteq B \Rightarrow C - B \subseteq C - A$ \item $\emptyset \neq A \subseteq B \Rightarrow \bigcap B \subseteq \bigcap A$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% Suppose $A \subseteq B$. Let $x \in C - B$. By definition of the relative complement, $x \in C$ and $x \not\in B$. Then $x$ cannot be a member of $A$, since otherwise this would contradict our subset hypothesis. That is, $x \in C$ and $x \not\in A$. Therefore $x \in C - A$. Since this holds for arbitrary $x \in C - B$, it follows that $C - B \subseteq C - A$. \paragraph{(ii)}% Suppose $A \neq \emptyset$ and $A \subseteq B$. Then $B \neq \emptyset$. Let $x \in \bigcap B$. By definition of the intersection of sets, for all $b \in B$, $x \in b$. But then, by definition of the subset, for all $a \in A$, $x \in a$. Therefore $x \in \bigcap A$. Since this holds for arbitrary $x \in \bigcap B$, it follows that $\bigcap B \subseteq \bigcap A$. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{General Distributive Laws}}% \label{sub:general-distributive-laws} For any sets $A$ and $\mathscr{B}$, \begin{align*} A \cup \bigcap \mathscr{B} & = \bigcap\; \{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \} \quad\text{for}\quad \mathscr{B} \neq \emptyset \\ A \cap \bigcup \mathscr{B} & = \bigcup\; \{ A \cap X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \} \end{align*} \begin{proof} Let $A$ and $\mathscr{B}$ be sets. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item For $\mathscr{B} \neq \emptyset$, $A \cup \bigcap \mathscr{B} = \bigcap\; \{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}$. \item $A \cap \bigcup \mathscr{B} = \bigcup\; \{ A \cap X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% Suppose $\mathscr{B}$ is nonempty. Then $\bigcap \mathscr{B}$ is defined. By definition of the union and intersection of sets, \begin{align*} A \cup \bigcap \mathscr{B} & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in \bigcap \mathscr{B} \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in \{ y \mid (\forall b \in \mathscr{B}), y \in b \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor (\forall b \in \mathscr{B}), x \in b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall b \in \mathscr{B}, x \in A \lor x \in b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall b \in \mathscr{B}, x \in A \cup b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in \bigcap\; \{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}\} \\ & = \bigcap\; \{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}. \end{align*} \paragraph{(ii)}% By definition of the intersection and union of sets, \begin{align*} A \cap \bigcup \mathscr{B} & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in \bigcup \mathscr{B} \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in \{ y \mid (\exists b \in \mathscr{B}), y \in b \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land (\exists b \in \mathscr{B}), x \in b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \exists b \in \mathscr{B}, x \in A \land x \in b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \exists b \in \mathscr{B} x \in A \cap b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in \bigcup\; \{ A \cap X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}\} \\ & = \bigcup\; \{ A \cap X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{General De Morgan's Laws}}% \label{sub:general-de-morgans-laws} For any set $C$ and $\mathscr{A} \neq \emptyset$, \begin{align*} C - \bigcup \mathscr{A} & = \bigcap\; \{ C - X \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \} \\ C - \bigcap \mathscr{A} & = \bigcup\; \{ C - X \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \} \end{align*} \begin{proof} Let $C$ and $\mathscr{A}$ be sets such that $\mathscr{A} \neq \emptyset$. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $C - \bigcup \mathscr{A} = \bigcap\; \{ C - X \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}$ \item $C - \bigcap \mathscr{A} = \bigcup\; \{ C - X \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% By definition of the relative complement, union, and intersection of sets, \begin{align*} C - \bigcup \mathscr{A} & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land x \not\in \bigcup \mathscr{A} \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land x \not\in \{ y \mid (\exists b \in \mathscr{A}) y \in b \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land \neg(\exists b \in \mathscr{A}, x \in b) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land (\forall b \in \mathscr{A}, x \not\in b) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall b \in \mathscr{A}, x \in C \land x \not\in b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall b \in \mathscr{A}, x \in C - b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in \bigcap\; \{ C - X \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \} \\ & = \bigcap\; \{ C - X \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}. \end{align*} \paragraph{(ii)}% By definition of the relative complement, union, and intersection of sets, \begin{align*} C - \bigcap \mathscr{A} & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land x \not\in \bigcap \mathscr{A} \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land x \not\in \{ y \mid (\forall b \in \mathscr{A}) y \in b \}\} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land \neg(\forall b \in \mathscr{A}, x \in b) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in C \land \exists b \in \mathscr{A}, x \not\in b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \exists b \in \mathscr{A}, x \in C \land x \not\in b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \exists b \in \mathscr{A}, x \in C - b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in \bigcup\; \{ C - X \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \} \} \\ & = \bigcup\; \{ C - X \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{% \texorpdfstring{$\cap$/$-$}{Intersection/Difference} Associativity}}% \label{sub:intersection-difference-associativity} Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be sets. Then $A \cap (B - C) = (A \cap B) - C$. \begin{proof} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.inter\_diff\_assoc} Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be sets. By definition of the intersection and relative complement of sets, \begin{align*} A \cap (B - C) & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \in B - C \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \land (x \in B \land x \not\in C) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \land x \in B) \land x \not\in C \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \cap B \land x \not \in C \} \\ & = (A \cap B) - C. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Nonmembership of Symmetric Difference}} \label{sub:nonmembership-symmetric-difference} Let $A$ and $B$ be sets. $x \not\in A + B$ if and only if either $x \in A \cap B$ or $x \not\in A \cup B$. \begin{proof} \lean{Common/Set/Basic}{Set.not\_mem\_symm\_diff\_inter\_or\_not\_union} By definition of the \nameref{ref:symmetric-difference}, \begin{align*} x \not\in A + B & = \neg(x \in A + B) \\ & = \neg[x \in (A - B) \cup (B - A)] \\ & = \neg[x \in (A - B) \lor x \in (B - A)] \\ & = \neg[(x \in A \land x \not\in B) \lor (x \in B \land x \not\in A)] \\ & = \neg(x \in A \land x \not\in B) \land \neg(x \in B \land x \not\in A) \\ & = (x \not\in A \lor x \in B) \land (x \not\in B \lor x \in A) \\ & = ((x \not\in A \lor x \in B) \land x \not\in B) \lor ((x \not\in A \lor x \in B) \land x \in A) \\ & = (x \not\in A \land x \not\in B) \lor (x \in B \land x \in A) \\ & = \neg(x \in A \lor x \in B) \lor (x \in B \land x \in A) \\ & = x \not\in A \cup B \text{ or } x \in A \cap B. \end{align*} \end{proof} \section{Exercises 2}% \label{sec:exercises-2} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.1}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.1} Assume that $A$ is the set of integers divisible by $4$. Similarly assume that $B$ and $C$ are the sets of integers divisible by $9$ and $10$, respectively. What is in $A \cap B \cap C$? \begin{answer} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_1} The set of integers divisible by $4$, $9$, and $10$. \end{answer} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.2}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.2} Give an example of sets $A$ and $B$ for which $\bigcup A = \bigcup B$ but $A \neq B$. \begin{answer} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_2} Let $A = \{\{1\}, \{2\}\}$ and $B = \{\{1, 2\}\}$. \end{answer} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.3}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.3} Show that every member of a set $A$ is a subset of $\bigcup A$. (This was stated as an example in this section.) \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_3} Let $x \in A$. By definition, $$\bigcup A = \{ y \mid (\exists b \in A) y \in b\}.$$ Then $\{ y \mid y \in x\} \subseteq \bigcup A$. But $\{ y \mid y \in x\} = x$. Thus $x \subseteq \bigcup A$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.4}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.4} Show that if $A \subseteq B$, then $\bigcup A \subseteq \bigcup B$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_4} Let $A$ and $B$ be sets such that $A \subseteq B$. Let $x \in \bigcup A$. By definition of the union, there exists some $b \in A$ such that $x \in b$. By definition of the subset, $b \in B$. This immediatley implies $x \in \bigcup B$. Since this holds for all $x \in \bigcup A$, it follows $\bigcup A \subseteq \bigcup B$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.5}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.5} Assume that every member of $\mathscr{A}$ is a subset of $B$. Show that $\bigcup \mathscr{A} \subseteq B$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_5} Let $x \in \bigcup \mathscr{A}$. By definition, $$\bigcup \mathscr{A} = \{ y \mid (\exists b \in A)y \in b \}.$$ Then there exists some $b \in A$ such that $x \in b$. By hypothesis, $b \subseteq B$. Thus $x$ must also be a member of $B$. Since this holds for all $x \in \bigcup \mathscr{A}$, it follows $\bigcup \mathscr{A} \subseteq B$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.6a}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.6a} Show that for any set $A$, $\bigcup \powerset{A} = A$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_6a} We prove that (i) $\bigcup \powerset{A} \subseteq A$ and (ii) $A \subseteq \bigcup \powerset{A}$. \paragraph{(i)}% \label{par:exercise-2.6a-i} By definition, the \nameref{ref:power-set} of $A$ is the set of all subsets of $A$. In other words, every member of $\powerset{A}$ is a subset of $A$. By \nameref{sub:exercise-2.5}, $\bigcup \powerset{A} \subseteq A$. \paragraph{(ii)}% \label{par:exercise-2.6a-ii} Let $x \in A$. By definition of the power set of $A$, $\{x\} \in \powerset{A}$. By definition of the union, $$\bigcup \powerset{A} = \{ y \mid (\exists b \in \powerset{A}), y \in b).$$ Since $x \in \{x\}$ and $\{x\} \in \powerset{A}$, it follows $x \in \bigcup \powerset{A}$. Thus $A \subseteq \bigcup \powerset{A}$. \paragraph{Conclusion}% By \nameref{par:exercise-2.6a-i} and \nameref{par:exercise-2.6a-ii}, $\bigcup \powerset{A} = A$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.6b}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.6b} Show that $A \subseteq \powerset{\bigcup A}$. Under what conditions does equality hold? \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_6b} Let $x \in A$. By \nameref{sub:exercise-2.3}, $x$ is a subset of $\bigcup A$. By the definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $$\powerset{\bigcup A} = \{ y \mid y \subseteq \bigcup A \}.$$ Therefore $x \in \powerset{\bigcup A}$. Since this holds for all $x \in A$, $A \subseteq \powerset{\bigcup A}$. \suitdivider We show equality holds if and only if there exists some set $B$ such that $A = \powerset{B}$. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% \label{par:exercise-2.6b-right} Suppose $A = \powerset{\bigcup A}$. Then our statement immediately follows by settings $B = \bigcup A$. \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% \label{par:exercise-2.6b-left} Suppose there exists some set $B$ such that $A = \powerset{B}$. Therefore \begin{align*} \powerset{\bigcup A} & = \powerset{\left(\bigcup {\powerset {B}}\right)} \\ & = \powerset{B} & \textref{sub:exercise-2.6a} \\ & = A. \end{align*} \paragraph{Conclusion}% By \nameref{par:exercise-2.6b-right} and \nameref{par:exercise-2.6b-left}, $A = \powerset{\bigcup A}$ if and only if there exists some set $B$ such that $A = \powerset{B}$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.7a}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.7a} Show that for any sets $A$ and $B$, $$\powerset{A} \cap \powerset{B} = \powerset{(A \cap B)}.$$ \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_7a} Let $A$ and $B$ be arbitrary sets. We show that $\powerset{A} \cap \powerset{B} \subseteq \powerset{(A \cap B)}$ and then show that $\powerset{A} \cap \powerset{B} \supseteq \powerset{(A \cap B)}$. \paragraph{($\subseteq$)}% Let $x \in \powerset{A} \cap \powerset{B}$. That is, $x \in \powerset{A}$ and $x \in \powerset{B}$. By the definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, \begin{align*} \powerset{A} & = \{ y \mid y \subseteq A \} \\ \powerset{B} & = \{ y \mid y \subseteq B \} \end{align*} Thus $x \subseteq A$ and $x \subseteq B$, meaning $x \subseteq A \cap B$. But then $x \in \powerset{(A \cap B)}$, the set of all subsets of $A \cap B$. Since this holds for all $x \in \powerset{A} \cap \powerset{B}$, it follows $$\powerset{A} \cap \powerset{B} \subseteq \powerset{(A \cap B)}.$$ \paragraph{($\supseteq$)}% Let $x \in \powerset{(A \cap B)}$. By the definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $$\powerset{(A \cap B)} = \{ y \mid y \subseteq A \cap B \}.$$ Thus $x \subseteq A \cap B$, meaning $x \subseteq A$ and $x \subseteq B$. But this implies $x \in \powerset{A}$, the set of all subsets of $A$. Likewise $x \in \powerset{B}$, the set of all subsets of $B$. Thus $x \in \powerset{A} \cap \powerset{B}$. Since this holds for all $x \in \powerset{(A \cap B)}$, it follows $$\powerset{(A \cap B)} \subseteq \powerset{A} \cap \powerset{B}.$$ \paragraph{Conclusion}% Since each side of our identity is a subset of the other, $$\powerset{(A \cap B)} = \powerset{A} \cap \powerset{B}.$$ \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.7b}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.7b} Show that $\powerset{A} \cup \powerset{B} \subseteq \powerset{(A \cup B)}$. Under what conditions does equality hold? \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_7b\_i} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_7b\_ii} Let $x \in \powerset{A} \cup \powerset{B}$. By definition, $x \in \powerset{A}$ or $x \in \powerset{B}$ (or both). By the definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, \begin{align*} \powerset{A} &= \{ y \mid y \subseteq A \} \\ \powerset{B} &= \{ y \mid y \subseteq B \}. \end{align*} Thus $x \subseteq A$ or $x \subseteq B$. Therefore $x \subseteq A \cup B$. But then $x \in \powerset{(A \cup B)}$, the set of all subsets of $A \cup B$. \suitdivider We show equality holds if and only if one of $A$ or $B$ is a subset of the other. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% \label{par:exercise-2.7b-right} Suppose \begin{equation} \label{sub:exercise-2.7b-eq1} \powerset{A} \cup \powerset{B} = \powerset{(A \cup B)}. \end{equation} By the definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $A \cup B \in \powerset{(A \cup B)}$. Then \eqref{sub:exercise-2.7b-eq1} implies $A \cup B \in \powerset{A} \cup \powerset{B}$. That is, $A \cup B \in \powerset{A}$ or $A \cup B \in \powerset{B}$ (or both). For the sake of contradiction, suppose $A \not\subseteq B$ and $B \not\subseteq A$. Then there exists an element $x \in A$ such that $x \not\in B$ and there exists an element $y \in B$ such that $y \not\in A$. But then $A \cup B \not\in \powerset{A}$ since $y$ cannot be a member of a member of $\powerset{A}$. Likewise, $A \cup B \not\in \powerset{B}$ since $x$ cannot be a member of a member of $\powerset{B}$. Therefore our assumption is incorrect. In other words, $A \subseteq B$ or $B \subseteq A$. \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% \label{par:exercise-2.7b-left} WLOG, suppose $A \subseteq B$. Then, by \nameref{sub:exercise-1.3}, $\powerset{A} \subseteq \powerset{B}$. Thus \begin{align*} \powerset{A} \cup \powerset{B} & = \powerset{B} \\ & = \powerset{A \cup B}. \end{align*} \paragraph{Conclusion}% By \nameref{par:exercise-2.7b-right} and \nameref{par:exercise-2.7b-left}, it follows $\powerset{A} \cup \powerset{B} \subseteq \powerset{(A \cup B)}$ if and only if $A \subseteq B$ or $B \subseteq A$. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Exercise 2.8}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.8} Show that there is no set to which every singleton (that is, every set of the form $\{x\}$) belongs. [\textit{Suggestion}: Show that from such a set, we could construct a set to which every set belonged.] \begin{proof} We proceed by contradiction. Suppose there existed a set $A$ consisting of every singleton. Then the \nameref{ref:union-axiom} suggests $\bigcup A$ is a set. But this set is precisely the class of all sets, which is \textit{not} a set. Thus our original assumption was incorrect. That is, there is no set to which every singleton belongs. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.9}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.9} Give an example of sets $a$ and $B$ for which $a \in B$ but $\powerset{a} \not\in \powerset{B}$. \begin{answer} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_9} Let $a = \{1\}$ and $B = \{\{1\}\}$. Then \begin{align*} \powerset{a} & = \{\emptyset, \{1\}\} \\ \powerset{B} & = \{\emptyset, \{\{1\}\}\}. \end{align*} It immediately follows that $\powerset{a} \not\in \powerset{B}$. \end{answer} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.10}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.10} Show that if $a \in B$, then $\powerset{a} \in \powerset{\powerset{\bigcup B}}$. [\textit{Suggestion}: If you need help, look in the Appendix.] \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_10} Suppose $a \in B$. By \nameref{sub:exercise-2.3}, $a \subseteq \bigcup B$. By \nameref{sub:exercise-1.3}, $\powerset{a} \subseteq \powerset{\bigcup B}$. By the definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $$\powerset{\powerset{\bigcup B}} = \{ y \mid y \subseteq \powerset{\bigcup B} \}.$$ Therefore $\powerset{a} \in \powerset{\powerset{\bigcup B}}$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.11}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.11} Show that for any sets $A$ and $B$, $$A = (A \cap B) \cup (A - B) \quad\text{and}\quad A \cup (B - A) = A \cup B.$$ \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_11\_i} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_11\_ii} \noindent Let $A$ and $B$ be sets. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $A = (A \cap B) \cup (A - B)$ \item $A \cup (B - A) = A \cup B$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% By definition of the intersection, union, and relative complements of sets, \begin{align*} (A \cap B) \cup (A - B) & = \{ x \mid x \in A \cap B \lor x \in A - B \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in \{ y \mid y \in A \land y \in B \} \lor x \in A - B \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \land x \in B) \lor x \in A - B \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \land x \in B) \lor x \in \{ y \mid y \in A \land y \not\in B \} \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \land x \in B) \lor (x \in A \land x \not\in B) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor (x \in B \land x \not\in B) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor F \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \} \\ & = A. \end{align*} \paragraph{(ii)}% By definition of the union and relative complements of sets, \begin{align*} A \cup (B - A) & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in B - A \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in \{ y \mid y \in B \land y \not\in A \} \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor (x \in B \land x \not\in A) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \lor x \in B) \land (x \in A \lor x \not\in A) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \lor x \in B) \land T \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in B \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \cup B \} \\ & = A \cup B. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.12}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.12} Verify the following identity (one of De Morgan's laws): $$C - (A \cap B) = (C - A) \cup (C - B).$$ \begin{proof} Refer to \nameref{sub:de-morgans-laws}. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.13}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.13} Show that if $A \subseteq B$, then $C - B \subseteq C - A$. \begin{proof} Refer to \nameref{sub:anti-monotonicity}. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.14}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.14} Show by example that for some sets $A$, $B$, and $C$, the set $A - (B - C)$ is different from $(A - B) - C$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_14} Let $A = \{1, 2, 3\}$, $B = \{2, 3, 4\}$, and $C = \{3, 4, 5\}$. Then \begin{align*} A - (B - C) & = \{1, 2, 3\} - (\{2, 3, 4\} - \{3, 4, 5\}) \\ & = \{1, 2, 3\} - \{2\} \\ & = \{1, 3\} \end{align*} but \begin{align*} (A - B) - C & = (\{1, 2, 3\} - \{2, 3, 4\}) - \{3, 4, 5\} \\ & = \{1\} - \{3, 4, 5\} \\ & = \{1\}. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.15a}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.15a} Show that $A \cap (B + C) = (A \cap B) + (A \cap C)$. \begin{proof} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.inter\_symmDiff\_distrib\_left} By definition of the intersection, \nameref{ref:symmetric-difference}, and relative complement of sets, \begin{align*} (A & \cap B) + (A \cap C) \\ & = [(A \cap B) - (A \cap C)] \cup [(A \cap C) - (A \cap B)] \\ & = [(A \cap B) - A] \\ & \qquad \cup [(A \cap B) - C] \\ & \qquad \cup [(A \cap C) - A] \\ & \qquad \cup [(A \cap C) - B] & \textref{sub:de-morgans-laws} \\ & = [A \cap (B - A)] \\ & \qquad \cup [A \cap (B - C)] \\ & \qquad \cup [A \cap (C - A)] \\ & \qquad \cup [A \cap (C - B)] & \textref{sub:intersection-difference-associativity} \\ & = \emptyset \\ & \qquad \cup [A \cap (B - C)] \\ & \qquad \cup \emptyset \\ & \qquad \cup [A \cap (C - B)] & \textref{sub:identitives-involving-empty-set} \\ & = [A \cap (B - C)] \cup [A \cap (C - B)] \\ & = A \cap [(B - C) \cup (C - B)] & \textref{sub:distributive-laws} \\ & = A \cap (B + C). \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.15b}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.15b} Show that $A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C$. \begin{proof} \lean{Mathlib/Data/Set/Basic}{Set.symmDiff\_assoc} \noindent Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be sets. We prove that \begin{enumerate}[(i)] \item $A + (B + C) \subseteq (A + B) + C$ \item $(A + B) + C \subseteq A + (B + C)$ \end{enumerate} \paragraph{(i)}% \label{par:exercise-2.15b-i} Let $x \in A + (B + C)$. Then $x$ is in $A$ or in $B + C$, but not both. There are two cases to consider: \subparagraph{Case 1}% Suppose $x \in A$ and $x \not\in B + C$. Then, by \nameref{sub:nonmembership-symmetric-difference}, (a) $x \in B \cap C$ or (b) $x \not\in B \cup C$. Suppose (a) was true. That is, $x \in B$ and $x \in C$. Since $x$ is a member of $A$ and $B$, $x \not\in (A + B)$. Since $x$ is not a member of $A + B$ but is a member of $C$, $x \in (A + B) + C$. Now suppose (b) was true. That is, $x \not\in B$ and $x \not\in C$. Since $x$ is a member of $A$ but not $B$, $x \in (A + B)$. Since $x$ is a member of $A + B$ but not $C$, $x \in (A + B) + C$. \subparagraph{Case 2}% Suppose $x \in B + C$ and $x \not\in A$. Then (a) $x \in B$ or (b) $x \in C$ but not both. Suppose (a) was true. That is, $x \in B$ and $x \not\in C$. Since $x$ is not a member of $A$ and is a member of $B$, $x \in A + B$. Since $x$ is a member of $A + B$ but not $C$, $x \in (A + B) + C$. Now suppose (b) was true. That is, $x \not\in B$ and $x \in C$. Since $x$ is not a member of $A$ nor a member of $B$, $x \not\in A + B$. Since $x$ is not a member of $A + B$ but is a member of $C$, $x \in (A + B) + C$. \paragraph{(ii)}% \label{par:exercise-2.15b-ii} Let $x \in (A + B) + C$. Then $x$ is in $A + B$ or in $C$, but not both. There are two cases to consider: \subparagraph{Case 1}% Suppose $x \in A + B$ and $x \not\in C$. Then (a) $x \in A$ or (b) $x \in B$ but not both. Suppose (a) was true. That is, $x \in A$ and $x \not\in B$. Since $x$ is not a member of $B$ nor $C$, $x \not\in B + C$. Since $x$ is not a member of $B + C$ but is a member of $A$, $x \in A + (B + C)$. Now Suppose (b) was true. That is, $x \not\in A$ and $x \in B$. Since $x$ is a member of $B$ and not of $C$, then $x \in B + C$. Since $x$ is a member of $B + C$ and not of $A$, $x \in A + (B + C)$. \subparagraph{Case 2}% Suppose $x \not\in A + B$ and $x \in C$. Then, by \nameref{sub:nonmembership-symmetric-difference}, (a) $x \in A \cap B$ or (b) $x \not\in A \cup B$. Suppose (a) was true. That is, $x \in A \land x \in B$. Since $x$ is a member of $B$ and $C$, $x \not\in B + C$. Since $x$ is not a member of $B + C$ but is a member of $A$, $x \in A + (B + C)$. Now suppose (b) was true. That is, $x \not\in A$ and $x \not\in B$. Since $x$ is not a member of $B$ but is a member of $C$, $x \in B + C$. Since $x$ is a member of $B + C$ but not of $A$, $x \in A + (B + C)$. \paragraph{Conclusion}% In both \nameref{par:exercise-2.15b-i} and \nameref{par:exercise-2.15b-ii}, the subcases are exhaustive and prove the desired subset relation. Therefore $A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.16}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.16} Simplify: $$[(A \cup B \cup C) \cap (A \cup B)] - [(A \cup (B - C)) \cap A].$$ \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_16} Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be arbitrary sets. Then \begin{align*} [(A \cup B \cup C) \cap (A \cup B)] & - [(A \cup (B - C)) \cap A] \\ & = [A \cup B] - [A] \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in (A \cup B) \land x \not\in A \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in \{ y \mid y \in A \lor y \in B \} \land x \not\in A \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \lor x \in B) \land x \not\in A \} \\\ & = \{ x \mid (x \in A \land x \not\in A) \lor (x \in B \land x \not\in A) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid F \lor (X \in B \land x \not\in A) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in B \land x \not\in A \} \\ & = B - A. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.17}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.17} Show that the following four conditions are equivalent. \begin{enumerate}[(a)] \item $A \subseteq B$, \item $A - B = \emptyset$, \item $A \cup B = B$, \item $A \cap B = A$. \end{enumerate} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_17\_i} \lean*{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_17\_ii} \lean*{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_17\_iii} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_17\_iv} Let $A$ and $B$ be arbitrary sets. We show that (i) $(a) \Rightarrow (b)$, (ii) $(b) \Rightarrow (c)$, (iii) $(c) \Rightarrow (d)$, and (iv) $(d) \Rightarrow (a)$. \paragraph{(i)}% Suppose $A \subseteq B$. That is, $\forall t, t \in A \Rightarrow t \in B$. Then there is no element such that $t \in A$ and $t \not\in B$. By definition of the relative complement, this immediately implies $A - B = \emptyset$. \paragraph{(ii)}% Suppose $A - B = \emptyset$. By definition of the relative complement, $$A - B = \emptyset = \{ x \mid x \in A \land x \not\in B \}.$$ Then, for all $t$, $\neg(t \in A \land t \not\in B) = t \not\in A \lor t \in B$. This implies, by definition of the subset, that $A \subseteq B$. It then immediately follows that $A \cup B = B$. \paragraph{(iii)}% Suppose $A \cup B = B$. Then there is no member of $A$ that is not a member of $B$. In other words, $A \subseteq B$. This immediately implies $A \cap B = A$. \paragraph{(iv)}% Suppose $A \cap B = A$. Then every member of $A$ is a member of $B$. This immediately implies $A \subseteq B$. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Exercise 2.18}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.18} Assume that $A$ and $B$ are subsets of $S$. List all of the different sets that can be made from these three by use of the binary operations $\cup$, $\cap$, and $-$. \begin{proof} We can reason about this diagrammatically: \begin{figure}[ht] \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{venn-diagram} \centering \end{figure} In the above diagram, we assume the left circle corresponds to set $A$ and the right circle corresponds to $B$. The the possible sets we can make via the specified operators are: \begin{itemize} \item $A - B$, the left circle excluding the overlapping region. \item $A \cap B$, the overlapping region. \item $B - A$, the right circle excluding the overlapping region. \item $(A \cup B) \cap A$, the left circle. \item $(A \cup B) \cap B$, the right circle. \item $(A - B) \cup (B - A)$, the symmetric difference. \item $A \cup B$, the entire diagram. \end{itemize} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.19}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.19} Is $\powerset{(A - B)}$ always equal to $\powerset{A} - \powerset{B}$? Is it ever equal to $\powerset{A} - \powerset{B}$? \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_19} Let $A$ and $B$ be arbitrary sets. We show (i) that $\emptyset \in \powerset{(A - B})$ and (ii) $\emptyset \not\in \powerset{A} - \powerset{B}$. \paragraph{(i)}% \label{par:exercise-2.19-i} By definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $$\powerset{(A - B)} = \{ x \mid x \subseteq A - B \}.$$ But $\emptyset$ is a subset of \textit{every} set. Thus $\emptyset \in \powerset{(A - B)}$. \paragraph{(ii)}% By the same reasoning found in \nameref{par:exercise-2.19-i}, $\emptyset \in \powerset{A}$ and $\emptyset \in \powerset{B}$. But then, by definition of the relative complement, $\emptyset \not\in \powerset{A} - \powerset{B}$. \paragraph{Conclusion}% By the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, the two sets are never equal. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.20}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.20} Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be sets such that $A \cup B = A \cup C$ and $A \cap B = A \cap C$. Show that $B = C$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_20} Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be arbitrary sets. By the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, $B = C$ if and only if for all sets $x$, $x \in B \iff x \in C$. We prove both directions of this biconditional. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $x \in B$. Then there are two cases to consider: \subparagraph{Case 1}% Assume $x \in A$. Then $x \in A \cap B$. By hypothesis, $A \cap B = A \cap C$. Thus $x \in A \cap C$ immediately implying $x \in C$. \subparagraph{Case 2}% Assume $x \not\in A$. Then $x \in A \cup B$. By hypothesis, $A \cup B = A \cup C$. Thus $x \in A \cup C$. Since $x \not\in A$, it follows $x \in C$. \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $x \in C$. Then there are two cases to consider: \subparagraph{Case 1}% Assume $x \in A$. Then $x \in A \cap C$. By hypothesis, $A \cap B = A \cap C$. Thus $x \in A \cap B$, immediately implying $x \in B$. \subparagraph{Case 2}% Assume $x \not\in A$. Then $x \in A \cup C$. By hypothesis, $A \cup B = A \cup C$. Thus $x \in A \cup B$. Since $x \not\in A$, it follows $x \in B$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.21}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.21} Show that $\bigcup (A \cup B) = \bigcup A \cup \bigcup B$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_21} Let $A$ and $B$ be arbitrary sets. By the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, the specified equality holds if and only if for all sets $x$, $$x \in \bigcup (A \cup B) \iff x \in \bigcup A \cup \bigcup B.$$ We prove both directions of this biconditional. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $x \in \bigcup (A \cup B)$. By definition of the union of sets, there exists some $b \in A \cup B$ such that $x \in b$. If $b \in A$, then $x \in \bigcup A$ and $x \in \bigcup A \cup \bigcup B$. Alternatively, if $b \in B$, then $x \in \bigcup B$ and $x \in \bigcup A \cup \bigcup B$. Regardless, $x$ is in the target set. \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $x \in \bigcup A \cup \bigcup B$. Then $x \in \bigcup A$ or $x \in \bigcup B$. WLOG, suppose $x \in \bigcup A$. By definition of the union of sets, there exists some $b \in A$ such that $x \in b$. But then $b \in A \cup B$ meaning $x$ is also a member of $\bigcup (A \cup B)$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.22}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.22} Show that if $A$ and $B$ are nonempty sets, then $\bigcap (A \cup B) = \bigcap A \cap \bigcap B$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_22} Let $A$ and $B$ be arbitrary, nonempty sets. By the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, the specified equality holds if and only if for all sets $x$, \begin{equation} \label{sub:exercise-2.22-eq1} x \in \bigcap (A \cup B) \iff x \in \bigcap A \cap \bigcap B. \end{equation} We prove both directions of this biconditional. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $x \in \bigcap (A \cup B)$. Then for all $b \in A \cup B$, $x \in B$. In other words, for every member $b_1$ of $A$ and every member $b_2$ of $B$, $x$ is a member of both $b_1$ and $b_2$. But that implies $x \in \bigcap A$ and $x \in \bigcap B$. \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $x \in \bigcap A \cap \bigcap B$. That is, $x \in \bigcap A$ and $x \in \bigcap B$. By definition of the intersection of sets, forall sets $b$, if $b \in A$, then $x \in b$. Likewise, if $b \in B$, then $x \in b$. In other words, if $b$ is a member of either $A$ or $B$, $x \in b$. That immediately implies $x \in \bigcap (A \cup B$. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Exercise 2.23}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.23} Show that if $\mathscr{B}$ is nonempty, then $A \cup \bigcap \mathscr{B} = \bigcap\; \{A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}$. \begin{proof} Refer to \nameref{sub:general-distributive-laws}. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.24a}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.24a} Show that if $\mathscr{A}$ is nonempty, then $\powerset{\bigcap\mathscr{A}} = \bigcap\; \{\powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_24a} Suppose $\mathscr{A}$ is a nonempty set. Then $\bigcap \mathscr{A}$ is well-defined. Therefore \begin{align*} \powerset{\bigcap\mathscr{A}} & = \{ x \mid x \subseteq \bigcap \mathscr{A} \} & \textref{ref:power-set} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \subseteq \{ y \mid \forall X \in \mathscr{A}, y \in X \} \} & \text{def'n intersection} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall t \in x, t \in \{ y \mid \forall X \in \mathscr{A}, y \in X \} \} & \text{def'n subset} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall t \in x, (\forall X \in \mathscr{A}, t \in X) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall X \in \mathscr{A}, (\forall t \in x, t \in X) \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall X \in \mathscr{A}, x \subseteq X \} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall X \in \mathscr{A}, x \in \powerset{X} \} & \textref{ref:power-set-axiom} \\ & = \{ x \mid \forall t \in \{ \powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}, x \in t \} \\ & = \bigcap\; \{\powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A}\}. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.24b}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.24b} Show that \begin{equation} \label{sub:exercise-2.24b-eq1} \bigcup\; \{ \powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \} \subseteq \powerset{\bigcup\mathscr{A}}. \end{equation} Under what conditions does equality hold? \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_24b} We first prove \eqref{sub:exercise-2.24b-eq1}. Let $x \in \bigcup\; \{ \powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}$. By definition of the union of sets, $(\exists X \in \mathscr{A}), x \in \powerset{X}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $x \subseteq X$. By \nameref{sub:exercise-2.3}, $X \subseteq \bigcup \mathscr{A}$. Therefore $x \subseteq \bigcup \mathscr{A}$, proving $x \in \powerset{\mathscr{A}}$ as expected. \suitdivider \noindent We show $\powerset{\bigcup A} \subseteq \bigcup\;\{ \powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}$ if and only if $\bigcup\mathscr{A} \in \mathscr{A}$. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $\powerset{\bigcup\mathscr{A}} \subseteq \bigcup\;\{ \powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $\bigcup\mathscr{A} \in \powerset{\bigcup\mathscr{A}}$. By hypothesis, $\bigcup\mathscr{A} \in \bigcup\;\{ \powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}$. By definition of the union of sets, there exists some $X \in \mathscr{A}$ such that $\bigcup\mathscr{A} \in \powerset{X}$. That is, $\bigcup\mathscr{A} \subseteq X$. But $\bigcup\mathscr{A}$ cannot be a proper subset of $X$ since $X \in \mathscr{A}$. Thus $\bigcup\mathscr{A} = X$. This proves $\bigcup\mathscr{A} \in \bigcup\;\{ \powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A} \}$. \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $\bigcup\mathscr{A} \in A$. Let $x \in \powerset{\bigcup\mathscr{A}}$. Since $\bigcup\mathscr{A} \in \mathscr{A}$, it immediately follows that $x \in \{\powerset{X} \mid X \in \mathscr{A}\}$. \paragraph{Conclusion}% Equality follows immediately from this fact in conjunction with the proof of \eqref{sub:exercise-2.24b-eq1}. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 2.25}}% \label{sub:exercise-2.25} Is $A \cup \bigcup \mathscr{B}$ always the same as $\bigcup\;\{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}$? If not, then under what conditions does equality hold? \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_2} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_2.exercise\_2\_25} We prove that \begin{equation} \label{sub:exercise-2.25-eq1} A \cup \bigcup \mathscr{B} = \bigcup\;\{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \} \end{equation} if and only if $A = \emptyset$ or $\mathscr{B} \neq \emptyset$. We prove both directions of this biconditional. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose \eqref{sub:exercise-2.25-eq1} holds true. There are two cases to consider: \subparagraph{Case 1}% Suppose $B \neq \emptyset$. Then $A = \emptyset \lor \mathscr{B} \neq \emptyset$ holds trivially. \subparagraph{Case 2}% Suppose $B = \emptyset$. Then $$A \cup \bigcup \mathscr{B} = A \cup \bigcup \emptyset = A$$ and $$ \bigcup\;\{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \} = \bigcup \emptyset \\ = \emptyset. $$ Then by hypothesis \eqref{sub:exercise-2.25-eq1}, $A = \emptyset$. Then $A = \emptyset \lor \mathscr{B} \neq \emptyset$ holds trivially. \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $A = \emptyset$ or $\mathscr{B} \neq \emptyset$. There are two cases to consider: \paragraph{Case 1}% Suppose $A = \emptyset$. Then $A \cup \bigcup \mathscr{B} = \bigcup{\mathscr{B}}$. Likewise, $$ \bigcup \{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \} = \bigcup \{ X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \} \\ = \bigcup \mathscr{B}. $$ Therefore \eqref{sub:exercise-2.25-eq1} holds. \paragraph{Case 2}% Suppose $B \neq \emptyset$. Then \begin{align*} A \cup \bigcup\mathscr{B} & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor x \in \bigcup\mathscr{B} \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in A \lor (\exists b \in \mathscr{B}) x \in b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (\exists b \in \mathscr{B}) x \in A \lor x \in b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid (\exists b \in \mathscr{B}) x \in A \cup b \} \\ & = \{ x \mid x \in \bigcup \{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \} \\ & = \bigcup \{ A \cup X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}. \end{align*} Therefore \eqref{sub:exercise-2.25-eq1} holds. \end{proof} \chapter{Relations and Functions}% \label{chap:relations-functions} \section{Ordered Pairs}% \label{sec:ordered-pairs} \subsection{\verified{Theorem 3A}}% \label{sub:theorem-3a} \begin{theorem}[3A] For any sets $x$, $y$, $u$, and $v$, \begin{equation} \label{sub:theorem-3a-eq1} \left< u, v \right> = \left< x, y \right> \iff u = x \land v = y. \end{equation} \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.OrderedPair.ext\_iff} Let $x$, $y$, $u$, and $v$ be arbitrary sets. \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% This follows trivially. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $\left< u, v \right> = \left< x, y \right>$. Then, by definition of an \nameref{ref:ordered-pair}, \begin{equation} \label{sub:theorem-3a-eq2} \{\{u\}, \{u, v\}\} = \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}. \end{equation} By the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, it follows $\{u\} \in \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}$ and $\{u, v\} \in \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}$. That is, $$\{u\} = \{x\} \quad\text{or}\quad \{u\} = \{x, y\}$$ and $$\{u, v\} = \{x\} \quad\text{or}\quad \{u, v\} = \{x, y\}.$$ There are 4 cases to consider: \paragraph{Case 1}% Suppose $\{u\} = \{x\}$ and $\{u, v\} = \{x\}$. The former identity implies $u = x$. The latter identity implies $u = v = x$. Then \eqref{sub:theorem-3a-eq2} simplifies to $$\{\{u\}\} = \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\},$$ meaning $x = y$. Thus $v = y$ as well. \paragraph{Case 2}% Suppose $\{u\} = \{x\}$ and $\{u, v\} = \{x, y\}$. The former identity implies $u = x$. Substituting into the latter identity yields $\{u, v\} = \{u, y\}$. This holds if and only if $v = y$. \paragraph{Case 3}% Suppose $\{u\} = \{x, y\}$ and $\{u, v\} = \{x\}$. The former identity implies $x = y = u$. Substituting into the latter yields $\{u, v\} = \{u\}$. Thus $u = v$ which in turn implies $v = y$. \paragraph{Case 4}% Suppose $\{u\} = \{x, y\}$ and $\{u, v\} = \{x, y\}$. The former identity implies $x = y = u$. Substituting into the latter yields $\{u, v\} = \{u\}$. This implies $v = u$ which in turn implies $v = y$. \paragraph{Conclusion}% These cases are exhaustive and each implies that $u = x$ and $v = y$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Lemma 3B}}% \label{sub:lemma-3b} \begin{theorem}[3B] If $x \in C$ and $y \in C$, then $\left< x, y \right> \in \powerset{\powerset{C}}$. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.theorem\_3b} Let $C$ be an arbitrary set and $x, y \in C$. Then, by definition of the \nameref{ref:power-set}, $\{x\}$ and $\{x, y\}$ are members of $\powerset{C}$. Likewise, $\{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}$ is a member of $\powerset{\powerset{C}}$. By definition of an \nameref{ref:ordered-pair}, $\left< x, y \right> = \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}$. This concludes our proof. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Cartesian Product}}% \label{sub:corollary-3c} \label{sub:cartesian-product} \begin{theorem}[3C] For any sets $A$ and $B$, there is a set whose members are exactly the pairs $\left< x, y \right>$ with $x \in A$ and $y \in B$. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \lean*{Mathlib/SetTheory/ZFC/Basic}{Set.prod} \note{The above Lean proof is a definition (i.e. an axiom). It does not prove such a set's existence from first principles.} Define $C = A \cup B$. Then for all $x \in A$ and for all $y \in B$, $x$ and $y$ are both in $C$. By \nameref{sub:lemma-3b}, it follows that $\left< x, y \right> \in \powerset{\powerset{C}}$. The \nameref{ref:power-set-axiom} indicates $\powerset{\powerset{C}}$ is indeed a set. Therefore the \nameref{ref:subset-axioms} are applicable. This implies the existence of a set $D$ such that $$\forall z, (z \in D \iff z \in \powerset{\powerset{C}} \land (\exists x, \exists y, x \in A \land y \in B \land z = \left< x, y \right>)).$$ By construction $D$ is the set whose members are exactly the pairs $\left< x, y \right>$ with $x \in A$ and $y \in B$. \end{proof} \section{Relations}% \label{sec:relations} \subsection{\verified{Theorem 3D}}% \label{sub:theorem-3d} \begin{theorem}[3D] If $\left< x, y \right> \in A$, then $x$ and $y$ belong to $\bigcup\bigcup A$. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.theorem\_3d} Let $A$ be a set and $\left< x, y \right> \in A$. By definition of an \nameref{ref:ordered-pair}, $$\left< x, y \right> = \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}.$$ By \nameref{sub:exercise-2.3}, $\{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\} \subseteq \bigcup A$. Then $\{x, y\} \in \bigcup A$. Another application of \nameref{sub:exercise-2.3} implies $\{x, y\} \subseteq \bigcup\bigcup A$. Therefore $x, y \in \bigcup\bigcup A$. \end{proof} \section{Functions}% \label{sec:functions} \subsection{\verified{Theorem 3E}}% \label{sub:theorem-3e} \begin{theorem}[3E] For a set $F$, $\dom{(F^{-1})} = \ran{F}$ and $\ran{(F^{-1})} = \dom{F}$. For a relation $F$, $(F^{-1})^{-1} = F$. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Common/Set/Relation} {Set.Relation.dom\_inv\_eq\_ran\_self} \lean*{Common/Set/Relation} {Set.Relation.ran\_inv\_eq\_dom\_self} \lean{Common/Set/Relation} {Set.Relation.inv\_inv\_eq\_self} We prove that (i) $\dom{(F^{-1})} = \ran{F}$, (ii) $\ran{(F^{-1})} = \dom{F}$, and (iii) $(F^{-1})^{-1} = F$. \paragraph{(i)}% By definition of the \nameref{ref:domain}, $x \in \dom{(F^{-1})}$ if and only if there exists some $y$ such that $\left< x, y \right> \in F^{-1}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:inverse} of a set, $\left< y, x \right> \in F$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:range}, $x \in \ran{F}$. Since each step holds biconditionally, it follows $\dom{(F^{-1})} = \ran{F}$ as expected. \paragraph{(ii)}% By definition of the \nameref{ref:range}, $x \in \ran{(F^{-1})}$ if and only if there exists some $t$ such that $\left< t, x \right> \in F^{-1}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:inverse} of a set, $\left< x, t \right> \in F$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:domain}, $x \in \dom{F}$. Since each step holds biconditionally, it follows $\ran{(F^{-1})} = \dom{F}$. \paragraph{(iii)}% By definition of the \nameref{ref:inverse} of a set, \begin{align*} (F^{-1})^{-1} & = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid \left< v, u \right> \in F^{-1}\} \\ & = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid \left< u, v \right> \in F\} \\ & = F. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Theorem 3F}}% \label{sub:theorem-3f} \begin{theorem}[3F] For a set $F$, $F^{-1}$ is a function iff $F$ is single-rooted. A relation $F$ is a function iff $F^{-1}$ is single-rooted. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Common/Set/Relation} {Set.Relation.single\_valued\_inv\_iff\_single\_rooted\_self} \lean{Common/Set/Relation} {Set.Relation.single\_valued\_self\_iff\_single\_rooted\_inv} We prove that (i) any set $F$, $F^{-1}$ is a function iff $F$ is single-rooted and (ii) any relation $F$ is a function iff $F^{-1}$ is single-rooted. \paragraph{(i)}% \label{par:theorem-3f-i} Let $F$ be any set. \subparagraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $F^{-1}$ is a \nameref{ref:function}. By definition, for each $x \in \dom{(F^{-1})}$, there is only one $y$ such that $\left< x, y \right> \in F^{-1}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:inverse} of $F$, $F^{-1} = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid vFu\}$. Then for each $x \in \ran{F}$, there exists exactly one $y$ such that $\left< y, x \right> \in F$. This definitionally means $F$ is single-rooted. \subparagraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $F$ is single-rooted. By definition, for each $x \in \ran{F}$, there is only one $t$ such that $\left< t, x \right> \in F$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:inverse} of $F$, $F^{-1} = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid vFu\}$. Then for each $x \in \dom{(F^{-1})}$ there exists exactly one $t$ such that $\left< x, t \right> \in F^{-1}$. This definitionally means $F^{-1}$ is a function. \paragraph{(ii)}% Let $F$ be a \nameref{ref:relation}. \subparagraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $F$ is a function. By \nameref{sub:theorem-3e}, $F = (F^{-1})^{-1}$. Then by \nameref{par:theorem-3f-i}, $F^{-1}$ is single-rooted. \subparagraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $F^{-1}$ is single-rooted. Then by \nameref{par:theorem-3f-i}, $(F^{-1})^{-1}$ is a function. By \nameref{sub:theorem-3e}, $(F^{-1})^{-1} = F$. Thus $F$ is a function. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Lemma 1}}% \label{sub:lemma-1} For any one-to-one function $F$, $F^{-1}$ is also one-to-one. \begin{proof} \lean{Common/Set/Relation} {Set.Relation.one\_to\_one\_self\_iff\_one\_to\_one\_inv} We prove that (i) $F^{-1}$ is a function and (ii) $F^{-1}$ is single-rooted. \paragraph{(i)}% \label{par:lemma-1-i} By hypothesis, $F$ is one-to-one. This means it is single-rooted, i.e. for all $x \in \ran{F}$, there exists exactly one $t$ such that $\left< t, x \right> \in F$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:inverse} of $F$, $\left< x, t \right> \in F^{-1}$. But then for all $x \in \dom{(F^{-1})}$, there exists exactly one $t$ such that $\left< x, t \right> \in F^{-1}$. Thus $F^{-1}$ is a function. \paragraph{(ii)}% \label{par:lemma-1-ii} By hypothesis, $F$ is single-valued. That is, for all $x \in \dom{F}$, there exists exactly one $y$ such that $\left< x, y \right> \in F$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:inverse} of $F$, $\left< y, x \right> \in F^{-1}$. But then for all $x \in \ran{(F^{-1})}$, there exists exactly one $y$ such that $\left< y, x \right> \in F^{-1}$. Thus $F^{-1}$ is single-rooted. \paragraph{Conclusion}% By \nameref{par:lemma-1-i} and \nameref{par:lemma-1-ii}, $F^{-1}$ is a one-to-one function. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Theorem 3G}}% \label{sub:theorem-3g} \begin{theorem}[3G] Assume that $F$ is a one-to-one function. If $x \in \dom{F}$, then $F^{-1}(F(x)) = x$. If $y \in \ran{F}$, then $F(F^{-1}(y)) = y$. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.theorem\_3g\_i} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.theorem\_3g\_ii} Suppose $F$ is a one-to-one \nameref{ref:function}. Then \nameref{sub:lemma-1} indicates $F^{-1}$ is a one-to-one function with domain $\ran{F}$ and range $\dom{F}$. For all $x \in \dom{F}$, $\left< x, F(x) \right> \in F$. Then $\left< F(x), x \right> \in F^{-1}$. Since $F^{-1}$ is single-valued, $F^{-1}(F(x)) = x$. For all $y \in \ran{F}$, $\left< y, F^{-1}(y) \right> \in F^{-1}$. Then $\left< F^{-1}(y), y \right> \in F$. Since $F$ is single-valued, $F(F^{-1}(y)) = y$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Theorem 3H}}% \label{sub:theorem-3h} \begin{theorem}[3H] Assume that $F$ and $G$ are functions. Then $F \circ G$ is a function, its domain is \begin{equation} \label{sub:theorem-3h-eq1} \{x \in \dom{G} \mid G(x) \in \dom{F}\}, \end{equation} and for $x$ in its domain, $(F \circ G)(x) = F(G(x))$. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Common/Set/Relation} {Set.Relation.single\_valued\_comp\_is\_single\_valued} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.theorem\_3h\_dom} Let $F$ and $G$ be \nameref{ref:function}s. By definition of the \nameref{ref:composition} of $F$ and $G$, \begin{equation} \label{sub:theorem-3h-eq2} F \circ G = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid \exists t(uGt \land tFv)\}. \end{equation} By construction, $F \circ G$ is a relation. By the definition of the \nameref{ref:domain} of a relation, $x \in \dom{(F \circ G)}$ if and only if there exists some $y$ such that $\left< x, y \right> \in F \circ G$. We prove that (i) $F \circ G$ is a function with domain satisfying \eqref{sub:theorem-3h-eq1}, and (ii) $(F \circ G)(x) = F(G(x))$. \paragraph{(i)}% \label{par:theorem-3h-i} By \eqref{sub:theorem-3h-eq2}, there exists some $t$ such that $\left< x, t \right> \in G$ and $\left< t, y \right> \in F$. Since $G$ is single-valued, $t$ is uniquely determined by $x$. Since $F$ is single-valued, $y$ is uniquely determined by $t$. Therefore, by transitivity, $y$ is uniquely determined by $x$. Thus $F \circ G$ is single-valued, i.e. $F \circ G$ is a function. Furthermore, by definition of function application, $t = G(x)$. Thus $$\left< x, G(x) \right> \in G \quad\text{and}\quad \left< G(x), y \right> \in F.$$ This immediately implies \eqref{sub:theorem-3h-eq1} holds true. \paragraph{(ii)}% Let $x \in \dom{(F \circ G)}$. By definition, $\left< x, (F \circ G)(x) \right> \in F \circ G$. Then \eqref{sub:theorem-3h-eq2} implies $(F \circ G)(x)$ satisfies $\left< G(x), (F \circ G)(x) \right> \in F$. This is equivalent to saying $F(G(x)) = (F \circ G)(x)$ as expected. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Theorem 3I}}% \label{sub:theorem-3i} \begin{theorem}[3I] For any sets $F$ and $G$, $$(F \circ G)^{-1} = G^{-1} \circ F^{-1}.$$ \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \lean{Common/Set/Relation} {Set.Relation.comp\_inv\_eq\_inv\_comp\_inv} By definition of the \nameref{ref:composition} of $F$ and $G$, $$F \circ G = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid \exists t(uGt \land tFv)\}.$$ By definition of the \nameref{ref:inverse} of a function, \begin{align*} (F \circ G)^{-1} & = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid \exists t (vGt \land tFu)\} \\ & = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid \exists t (tFu \land vGt)\} \\ & = \{\left< u, v \right> \mid \exists t \left[ u(F^{-1})t \land t(G^{-1})v \right]\} \\ & = G^{-1} \circ F^{-1}. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Theorem 3J}}% \label{sub:theorem-3j} \begin{theorem}[3J] Assume that $F \colon A \rightarrow B$, and that $A$ is nonempty. \begin{enumerate}[(a)] \item There exists a function $G \colon B \rightarrow A$ (a "left inverse") such that $G \circ F$ is the identity function $I_A$ on $A$ iff $F$ is one-to-one. \item There exists a function $H \colon B \rightarrow A$ (a "right inverse") such that $F \circ H$ is the identity function $I_B$ on $B$ iff $F$ maps $A$ \textit{onto} $B$. \end{enumerate} \end{theorem} \begin{proof} Let $F$ be a \nameref{ref:function} from nonempty set $A$ to set $B$. \paragraph{(a)}% We prove there exists a function $G \colon B \rightarrow A$ such that $G \circ F = I_A$ if and only if $F$ is one-to-one. \subparagraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Let $G \colon B \rightarrow A$ such that $G \circ F = I_A$. All that remains is to prove $F$ is single-valued. Let $y \in \ran{F}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:range} of a function, there exists some $x$ such that $\left< x, y \right> \in F$. Suppose $x_1, x_2 \in \dom{F}$ such that $\left< x_1, y \right>, \left< x_2, y \right> \in F$. Then $F(x_1) = F(x_2) = y$. Then $G(F(x_1)) = G(F(x_2))$ implies $I_A(x_1) = I_A(x_2)$. Thus $x_1 = x_2$. \subparagraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Let $F$ be one-to-one. Since $A$ is nonempty, there exists some $a \in A$. Let $G \colon B \rightarrow A$ be given by $$G(y) = \begin{cases} F^{-1}(y) & \text{if } y \in \ran{F} \\ a & \text{otherwise}. \end{cases}$$ $G$ is a function by virtue of \nameref{sub:lemma-1} and choice of mapping for all values $y \not\in \ran{F}$. Furthermore, for all $x \in A$, $F(x) \in \ran{F}$. Thus $(G \circ F)(x) = G(F(x)) = F^{-1}(F(x)) = x$ by \nameref{sub:theorem-3g}. \paragraph{(b)}% We prove there exists a function $H \colon B \rightarrow A$ such that $F \circ H = I_A$ if and only if $F$ maps $A$ onto $B$. \subparagraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $H \colon B \rightarrow A$ such that $F \circ H = I_A$. All that remains is to prove $\ran{F} = B$. Note that $\ran{F} \subseteq B$ by hypothesis. Let $y \in B$. But $F(H(y)) = y$ meaning $y \in \ran{F}$. Thus $B \subseteq \ran{F}$. Since $\ran{F} \subseteq B$ and $B \subseteq \ran{F}$, $\ran{F} = B$. \subparagraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $F$ maps $A$ \textit{onto} $B$. By definition of maps onto, $\ran{F} = B$. Then for all $y \in B$, there exists some $x \in A$ such that $\left< x, y \right> \in F$. Notice though that $F^{-1}[\{y\}]$ may not be a singleton set. Then there is no obvious way to \textit{choose} an element from each preimage to form a function. By the \nameref{ref:axiom-of-choice-1}, there exists a function $H \subseteq F^{-1}$ such that $\dom{H} = \dom{F^{-1}} = B$. For all $y \in B$, $\left< y, H(y) \right> \in H \subseteq F^{-1}$ meaning $\left< H(y), y \right> \in F$. Thus $F(H(y)) = y$ as expected. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Theorem 3K(a)}}% \label{sub:theorem-3k-a} \begin{theorem}[3K(a)] The following hold for any sets. ($F$ need not be a function.) The image of a union is the union of the images: \begin{equation} \label{sub:theorem-3k-a-eq1} \img{F}{A \cup B} = \img{F}{A} \cup \img{F}{B} \end{equation} and \begin{equation} \label{sub:theorem-3k-a-eq2} \img{F}{\bigcup{\mathscr{A}}} = \bigcup\;\{\img{F}{A} \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\}. \end{equation} \end{theorem} \begin{proof} Let $F$, $A$, $B$, and $\mathscr{A}$ be arbitrary sets. We prove (i) \eqref{sub:theorem-3k-a-eq1} and (ii) \eqref{sub:theorem-3k-a-eq2}. \paragraph{(i)}% By definition of the \nameref{ref:image} of a set: \begin{align*} \img{F}{A \cup B} & = \{v \mid \exists u, u \in A \cup B \land uFv\} \\ & = \{v \mid \exists u, (u \in A \land uFv) \lor (u \in B \land uFv)\} \\ & = \{v \mid (\exists u \in A) uFv\} \cup \{v \mid (\exists u \in B) uFv\} \\ & = \img{F}{A} \cup \img{F}{B}. \end{align*} \paragraph{(ii)}% We prove that both sides of \eqref{sub:theorem-3k-a-eq2} is a subset of the other. \subparagraph{($\subseteq$)}% Let $v \in \img{F}{\bigcup{\mathscr{A}}}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:image} of a set, there exists a set $u$ such that $u \in \bigcup{\mathscr{A}} \land uFv$. Then, by definition of the union of sets, there exists some $A \in \mathscr{A}$ such that $u \in A$. Therefore $v \in \img{F}{A}$ meaning $v \in \bigcup\{\img{F}{A} \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\}$. \subparagraph{($\supseteq$)}% Let $v \in \bigcup\{\img{F}{A} \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\}$. Then there exists some $b \in \{\img{F}{A} \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\}$ such that $v \in b$. In other words, there exists some $A \in \mathscr{A}$ such that $v \in b = \img{F}{A}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:image} of a set, there exists a set $u$ such that $u \in A \land uFv$. But this implies that $u \in \bigcup{\mathscr{A}} \land uFv$. Therefore $v \in \img{F}{\bigcup{\mathscr{A}}}$. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Theorem 3K(b)}}% \label{sub:theorem-3k-b} \begin{theorem}[3K(b)] The following hold for any sets. ($F$ need not be a function.) The image of an intersection is included in the intersection of the images: \begin{equation} \label{sub:theorem-3k-b-eq1} \img{F}{A \cap B} \subseteq \img{F}{A} \cap \img{F}{B} \end{equation} and \begin{equation} \label{sub:theorem-3k-b-eq2} \img{F}{\bigcap\mathscr{A}} \subseteq \bigcap\;\{\img{F}{A} \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\}. \end{equation} Equality holds if $F$ is single-rooted. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} Let $F$, $A$, $B$, and $\mathscr{A}$ be arbitrary sets. We first prove (i) \eqref{sub:theorem-3k-b-eq1} and (ii) \eqref{sub:theorem-3k-b-eq2}. Then, assuming $F$ is single-rooted, we prove both (iii) \eqref{sub:theorem-3k-b-eq1} and (iv) \eqref{sub:theorem-3k-b-eq2} hold under equality. \paragraph{(i)}% \label{par:theorem-3k-b-i} Let $v \in \img{F}{A \cap B}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:image} of a set, $\exists u \in A \cap B, uFv$. Then $u \in A \land uFv$ and $u \in B \land uFv$. Therefore $v \in \img{F}{A} \cap \img{F}{B}$. \paragraph{(ii)}% \label{par:theorem-3k-b-ii} Let $v \in \img{F}{\bigcap{\mathscr{A}}}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:image} of a set, $\exists u \in \bigcap{\mathscr{A}}, uFv$. Then $\exists u, (\forall A \in \mathscr{A}, u \in A) \land uFv$. This implies that $\forall A \in \mathscr{A}, \exists u \in A, uFv$. Then $\forall A \in \mathscr{A}, v \in \img{F}{A}$. Thus $v \in \bigcap\{\img{F}{A} \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\}$. \paragraph{(iii)}% Suppose $F$ is single-rooted. By \nameref{par:theorem-3k-b-i}, $$\img{F}{A \cap B} \subseteq \img{F}{A} \cap \img{F}{B}.$$ All that remains is showing $$\img{F}{A} \cap \img{F}{B} \subseteq \img{F}{A \cap B}.$$ Let $v \in \img{F}{A} \cap \img{F}{B}$. Then $v \in \img{F}{A}$ and $v \in \img{F}{B}$. That is, $\exists u \in A, uFv$ and $\exists w \in B, wFv$. Since $F$ is single rooted, it follows $u = w$. Thus $u \in A \cap B \land uFv$ meaning $v \in \img{F}{A \cap B}$. \paragraph{(iv)}% Suppose $F$ is single-rooted. By \nameref{par:theorem-3k-b-ii}, $$\img{F}{\bigcap\mathscr{A}} \subseteq \bigcap\;\{\img{F}{A} \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\}.$$ All that remains is showing $$\bigcap\;\{\img{F}{A} \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\} \subseteq \img{F}{\bigcap\mathscr{A}}.$$ Let $v \in \bigcap\;\{\img{F}{A} \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\}$. Then $\forall A \in \mathscr{A}, v \in \img{F}{A}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:image} of a set, $\forall A \in \mathscr{A}, \exists u \in A, uFv$. Since $F$ is single-rooted, it follows that $\exists u, \forall A \in \mathscr{A}, u \in A \land uFv$. Equivalently, $\exists u \in \bigcap{A}, uFv$. Thus $v \in \img{F}{\bigcap{A}}$. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Theorem 3K(c)}}% \label{sub:theorem-3k-c} \begin{theorem}[3K(c)] The following hold for any sets. ($F$ need not be a function.) The image of a difference includes the difference of the images: \begin{equation} \label{sub:theorem-3k-c-eq1} \img{F}{A} - \img{F}{B} \subseteq \img{F}{A - B}. \end{equation} Equality holds if $F$ is single-rooted. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} We prove that (i) \eqref{sub:theorem-3k-c-eq1} holds and (ii) equality holds if $F$ is single-rooted. \paragraph{(i)}% \label{par:theorem-3k-c-i} Let $v \in \img{F}{A} - \img{F}{B}$. By definition of the difference of two sets, $v \in \img{F}{A}$ and $v \not\in \img{F}{B}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:image} of a set, there exists a set $u \in A$ such that $\left< u, v \right> \in F$. Likewise, $\forall w \in B, \left< w, v \right> \not\in F$. Thus $u \not\in B$, since otherwise we get an immediate contradiction. Therefore $u \in A - B$ meaning $v \in \img{F}{A - B}$. \paragraph{(ii)}% Suppose $F$ is single-rooted. By \nameref{par:theorem-3k-c-i}, $$\img{F}{A} - \img{F}{B} \subseteq \img{F}{A - B}.$$ All that remains is showing $$\img{F}{A - B} \subseteq \img{F}{A} - \img{F}{B}.$$ Let $v \in \img{F}{A - B}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:image} of a set, there exists a set $u \in A - B$ such that $uFv$. Then $u \in A$ and $u \not\in B$. The former membership relation implies $v \in \img{F}{A}$. The latter implies $v \not\in \img{F}{B}$ since $F$ being single-rooted would otherwise invoke an immediate contradiction. Thus $v \in \img{F}{A} - \img{F}{B}$. \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Corollary 3L}}% \label{sub:corollary-3l} \begin{theorem}[3L] For any function $G$ and sets $A$, $B$, and $\mathscr{A}$: \begin{align} G^{-1}\left\llbracket\bigcup\mathscr{A}\right\rrbracket & = \bigcup\;\{G^{-1}[A] \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\}, \label{sub:corollary-3l-eq1} \\ G^{-1}\left[\bigcap\mathscr{A}\right] & = \bigcap\;\{G^{-1}[A] \mid A \in \mathscr{A}\} \text{ for } \mathscr{A} \neq \emptyset, \label{sub:corollary-3l-eq2} \\ G^{-1}[A - B] & = G^{-1}[A] - G^{-1}[B]. \label{sub:corollary-3l-eq3} \end{align} \end{theorem} \begin{proof} \nameref{sub:theorem-3k-a} implies \eqref{sub:corollary-3l-eq1}. Because the inverse of a function is always single-rooted, \nameref{sub:theorem-3k-b} implies \eqref{sub:corollary-3l-eq2}. Likewise \nameref{sub:theorem-3k-c} implies \eqref{sub:corollary-3l-eq3}. \end{proof} \section{Equivalence Relations}% \label{sec:equivalence-relations} \subsection{\unverified{Theorem 3M}}% \label{sub:theorem-3m} \begin{theorem}[3M] If $R$ is a symmetric and transitive relation, then $R$ is an equivalence relation on $\fld{R}$. \end{theorem} \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \section{Exercises 3}% \label{sec:exercises-3} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.1}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.1} Suppose that we attempted to generalize the Kuratowski definitions of ordered pairs to ordered triples by defining $$\left< x, y, z \right>^* = \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}, \{x, y, z\}\}.$$ Show that this definition is unsuccessful by giving examples of objects $u$, $v$, $w$, $x$, $y$, $z$ with $\left< x, y, z \right>^* = \left< u, v, w \right>^*$ but with either $y \neq v$ or $z \neq w$ (or both). \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_1} Let $x = 1$, $y = 1$, and $z = 2$. Let $u = 1$, $v = 2$, and $w = 2$. Then \begin{align*} \left< x, y, z \right>^* & = \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}, \{x, y, z\}\} \\ & = \{\{1\}, \{1, 1\}, \{1, 1, 2\}\} \\ & = \{\{1\}, \{1, 2\}\}. \end{align*} Likewise \begin{align*} \left< u, v, w \right>^* & = \{\{u\}, \{u, v\}, \{u, v, w\}\} \\ & = \{\{1\}, \{1, 2\}, \{1, 2, 2\}\} \\ & = \{\{1\}, \{1, 2\}\}. \end{align*} Thus $\left< x, y, z \right>^* = \left< u, v, w \right>^*$ but $y \neq v$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.2a}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.2a} Show that $A \times (B \cup C) = (A \times B) \cup (A \times C)$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_2a} Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be arbitrary sets. Then by definition of the \nameref{sub:cartesian-product} and union of sets, \begin{align*} A \times (B \cup C) & = \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid x \in A \land y \in (B \cup C) \} \\ & = \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid x \in A \land (y \in B \lor y \in C) \} \\ & = \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid (x \in A \land y \in B) \lor (x \in A \land y \in C) \} \\ & = \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid (x \in A \land y \in B) \} \cup \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid (x \in A \land y \in C) \} \\ & = (A \times B) \cup (A \times C). \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.2b}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.2b} Show that if $A \times B = A \times C$ and $A \neq \emptyset$, then $B = C$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_2b} Let $A$, $B$, and $C$ be arbitrary sets such that $A \neq \emptyset$. By definition of the \nameref{sub:cartesian-product}, \begin{align} A \times B & = \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid x \in A \land y \in B \} & \label{sub:exercise-3.2b-eq1} \\ A \times C & = \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid x \in A \land y \in C \}. & \label{sub:exercise-3.2b-eq2} \end{align} There are two cases to consider: \paragraph{Case 1}% Suppose $B \neq \emptyset$. Then $A \times B \neq \emptyset$ and $A \times C \neq \emptyset$. Let $\left< x, y \right> \in A \times B$. By \eqref{sub:exercise-3.2b-eq1}, $x \in A$ and $y \in B$. By the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, $$\left< x, y \right> \in A \times B \iff \left< x, y \right> \in A \times C.$$ Therefore $\left< x, y \right> \in A \times C$. By \eqref{sub:exercise-3.2b-eq2}, $x \in A$ and $y \in C$. Since membership of $y$ in $B$ and in $C$ holds biconditionally, the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom} indicates $B = C$. \paragraph{Case 2}% Suppose $B = \emptyset$. Then there is no $\left< x, y \right>$ such that $x \in A$ and $y \in B$. Thus $A \times B = \emptyset$ and $A \times C = \emptyset$. But then there cannot exist an $\left< x, y \right>$ such that $x \in A$ and $y \in C$ either. Since $A \neq \emptyset$, it must be the case that $C = \emptyset$. Thus $B = C$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.3}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.3} Show that $A \times \bigcup \mathscr{B} = \bigcup\;\{ A \times X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_3} Let $A$ and $\mathscr{B}$ be arbitrary sets. By definition of the \nameref{sub:cartesian-product} and the union of sets, \begin{align*} A \times \bigcup\mathscr{B} & = \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid x \in A \land y \in \bigcup\mathscr{B} \} \\ & = \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid x \in A \land (\exists b \in \mathscr{B}), y \in b \} \\ & = \{ \left< x, y \right> \mid (\exists b \in \mathscr{B}), x \in A \land y \in b \} \\ & = \bigcup\; \{ A \times X \mid X \in \mathscr{B} \}. \end{align*} \end{proof} \subsection{\partial{Exercise 3.4}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.4} Show that there is no set to which every ordered pair belongs. \begin{proof} For the sake of contradiction, suppose there exists a set $A$ to which every ordered pair belongs. That is, for all sets $x$ and $y$, $\left< x, y \right> = \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}$ is a member of $A$. By the \nameref{ref:union-axiom}, it follows that $\bigcup\bigcup A$ is the set to which every set belongs. But \nameref{sub:theorem-2a} shows this is impossible. Thus our original assumption was wrong; there exists no set to which every ordered pair belongs. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.5a}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.5a} Assume that $A$ and $B$ are given sets, and show that there exists a set $C$ such that for any $y$, \begin{equation} \label{sub:exercise-3.5a-eq1} y \in C \iff y = \{x\} \times B \text{ for some } x \text{ in } A. \end{equation} In other words, show that $\{\{x\} \times B \mid x \in A\}$ is a set. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_5a} Let $a \in A$. By the \nameref{ref:pairing-axiom}, $\{a\}$ is a set. By \nameref{sub:cartesian-product}, $\{a\} \times B$ is a set. Again by the \nameref{ref:pairing-axiom}, $\{\{a\} \times B\}$ is a set. Next, by another application of \nameref{sub:cartesian-product}, $A \times B$ is a set. By the \nameref{ref:power-set-axiom}, $\powerset{(A \times B)}$ is a set. Thus, by the \nameref{ref:subset-axioms}, the following is also a set: $$C = \{ y \in \powerset{(A \times B)} \mid \exists a \in A, \forall x, \left[ x \in y \iff \exists b \in B, x = \left< a, b \right> \right] \}.$$ We now show that $C$ satisfies \eqref{sub:exercise-3.5a-eq1}. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $y \in C$. Then there exists some $a \in A$ such that $$\forall x, \left[ x \in y \iff \exists b \in B, x = \left< a, b \right> \right].$$ By the \nameref{ref:extensionality-axiom}, \begin{align*} y & = \{ \left< a, b \right> \mid b \in B \} \\ & = \{ \left< x, b \right> \mid x \in \{a\} \land b \in B \} \\ & = \{ \{a\} \times B \}. \end{align*} \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $y = \{a\} \times B$ for some $a \in A$. By \nameref{sub:cartesian-product}, $x \in \{a\} \times B$ if and only if $\exists b \in B$ such that $x = \left< a, b \right>$. But then $x \in y$ if and only if $\exists b \in B$ such that $x = \left< a, b \right>$. This immediately proves $y \in C$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.5b}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.5b} With $A$, $B$, and $C$ as above, show that $A \times B = \bigcup C$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_5b} Let $A$ and $B$ be arbitrary sets. We want to show that \begin{equation} \label{sub:exercise-3.5b-eq1} A \times B = \bigcup\; \{\{x\} \times B \mid x \in A\}. \end{equation} The left-hand side of \eqref{sub:exercise-3.5b-eq1} is a set by virtue of \nameref{sub:cartesian-product}. The right-hand side of \eqref{sub:exercise-3.5b-eq1} is a set by virtue of \nameref{sub:exercise-3.5a}. We prove the set on each side is a subset of the other. \paragraph{($\subseteq$)}% Let $c \in A \times B$. Then there exists some $a \in A$ and $b \in B$ such that $c = \left< a, b \right>$. Thus $c \in \{a\} \times B$. We also note $\{a\} \times B \in \{\{x\} \times B \mid x \in A\}$, specifically when $x = a$. Therefore, by the \nameref{ref:union-axiom}, $c \in \bigcup\;\{\{x\} \times B \mid x \in A\}$. \paragraph{($\supseteq$)}% Let $c \in \bigcup\; \{\{x\} \times B \mid x \in A\}$. By the \nameref{ref:union-axiom}, there exists some $b \in \{\{x\} \times B \mid x \in A\}$ such that $c \in b$. Then there exists some $x \in A$ such that $b = \{x\} \times B$. Therefore $c \in \{x\} \times B$. But $x \in A$ meaning $c \in A \times B$ as well. \paragraph{Conclusion}% Since we have shown $A \times B \subseteq \bigcup\; \{\{x\} \times B \mid x \in A\}$ and $A \times B \supseteq \bigcup\; \{\{x\} \times B \mid x \in A\}$, it follows \eqref{sub:exercise-3.5b-eq1} is a true identity. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.6}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.6} Show that a set $A$ is a relation iff $A \subseteq \dom{A} \times \ran{A}$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_6} Let $A$ be a set. We prove the forward and reverse direction of the bidirectional. \paragraph{($\Rightarrow$)}% Suppose $A$ is a \nameref{ref:relation}. We show for all $a \in A$, $a \in \dom{A} \times \ran{A}$. Let $a \in A$. Since $A$ is a relation, $a$ is an ordered pair. Then there exists some sets $x$ and $y$ such that $a = \left< x, y \right>$. By the definition of the \nameref{ref:domain} and \nameref{ref:range} of $A$, $x \in \dom{A}$ and $y \in \ran{A}$. Thus $a = \left< x, y \right> \in \dom{A} \times \ran{A}$ as well. This proves $A \subseteq \dom{A} \times \ran{A}$. \paragraph{($\Leftarrow$)}% Suppose $A \subseteq \dom{A} \times \ran{A}$. Then for all $a \in A$, $a \in \dom{A} \times \ran{A}$. Therefore $a$ is an ordered pair. Since this holds for all $a \in A$, it follows $A$ is a relation. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.7}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.7} Show that if $R$ is a relation, then $\fld{R} = \bigcup\bigcup R$. \begin{proof} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_7} Let $R$ be a \nameref{ref:relation}. We show that (i) $\fld{R} \subseteq \bigcup\bigcup R$ and (ii) that $\bigcup\bigcup R \subseteq \fld{R}$. \paragraph{(i)}% \label{par:exercise-3.7-i} Let $x \in \fld{R} = \dom{R} \cup \ran{R}$. That is, $x \in \dom{R}$ or $x \in \ran{R}$. If $x \in \dom{R}$, then there exists some $y$ such that $\left< x, y \right> = \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\} \in R$. Then $\{x\} \in \bigcup R$ and $x \in \bigcup\bigcup R$. On the other hand, if $x \in \ran{R}$, then there exists some $t$ such that $\left< t, x \right> = \{\{t\}, \{t, x\}\} \in R$. Then $\{t, x\} \in \bigcup R$ and $x \in \bigcup\bigcup R$. \paragraph{(ii)}% \label{par:exercise-3.7-ii} Let $t \in \bigcup\bigcup R$. Then there exists some member $T \in \bigcup R$ such that $t \in T$. Likewise there exists some member $T' \in R$ such that $T \in T'$. By definition of a relation, $T' = \left< x, y \right> = \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\}$ for some sets $x$ and $y$. Thus $t = x$ or $t = y$. By \nameref{sub:exercise-3.6}, $t \in \dom{R}$ or $t \in \ran{R}$. In other words, $t \in \fld{R}$. \paragraph{Conclusion}% Since \nameref{par:exercise-3.7-i} and \nameref{par:exercise-3.7-ii} hold, $\fld{R} = \bigcup\bigcup{R}$. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.8}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.8} Show that for any set $\mathscr{A}$: \begin{align} \dom{\bigcup{\mathscr{A}}} & = \bigcup\;\{ \dom{R} \mid R \in \mathscr{A} \}, & \label{sub:exercise-3.8-eq1} \\ \ran{\bigcup{\mathscr{A}}} & = \bigcup\;\{ \ran{R} \mid R \in \mathscr{A} \}. & \label{sub:exercise-3.8-eq2} \end{align} \begin{proof} \statementpadding \lean*{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_8\_i} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_8\_ii} We prove (i) \eqref{sub:exercise-3.8-eq1} and then (ii) \eqref{sub:exercise-3.8-eq2}. \paragraph{(i)}% Let $x \in \dom{\bigcup{\mathscr{A}}}$. By definition of a domain, there exists some $y$ such that $\left< x, y \right> \in \bigcup{\mathscr{A}}$. By definition of the union of sets, $\exists y, \exists R \in \mathscr{A}, \left< x, y \right> \in R$. Equivalently, $\exists R \in \mathscr{A}, \exists y, \left< x, y \right> \in R$. By another application of the definition of a domain, $\exists R \in \mathscr{A}, x \in \dom{R}$. By another application of the definition of the union of sets, $x \in \bigcup\;\{ \dom{R} \mid R \in \mathscr{A} \}$. Since membership of these two sets holds biconditionally, it follows \eqref{sub:exercise-3.8-eq1} holds. \paragraph{(ii)}% Let $x \in \ran{\bigcup{\mathscr{A}}}$. By definition of a range, there exists some $t$ such that $\left< t, x \right> \in \bigcup{\mathscr{A}}$. By definition of the union of sets, $\exists t, \exists R \in \mathscr{A}, \left< t, x \right> \in R$. Equivalently, $\exists R \in \mathscr{A}, \exists t, \left< t, x \right> \in R$. By another application of the definition of a range, $\exists R \in \mathscr{A}, x \in \ran{R}$. By another application of the definition of the union of sets, $x \in \bigcup\;\{ \ran{R} \mid R \in \mathscr{A} \}$. Since membership of these two sets holds biconditionally, it follows \eqref{sub:exercise-3.8-eq2} holds. \end{proof} \subsection{\verified{Exercise 3.9}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.9} Discuss the result of replacing the union operation by the intersection operation in the preceding problem. \begin{answer} \statementpadding \lean*{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_9\_i} \lean{Bookshelf/Enderton/Set/Chapter\_3} {Enderton.Set.Chapter\_3.exercise\_3\_9\_ii} Replacing the union operation with the intersection problem produces the following relationships \begin{align} \dom{\bigcap{\mathscr{A}}} & \subseteq \bigcap\;\{ \dom{R} \mid R \in \mathscr{A} \}, & \label{sub:exercise-3.9-eq1} \\ \ran{\bigcap{\mathscr{A}}} & \subseteq \bigcap\;\{ \ran{R} \mid R \in \mathscr{A} \}. & \label{sub:exercise-3.9-eq2} \end{align} We prove (i) \eqref{sub:exercise-3.9-eq1} and then (ii) \eqref{sub:exercise-3.9-eq2}. \paragraph{(i)}% Let $x \in \dom{\bigcap{\mathscr{A}}}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:domain} of a set, $\exists y, \left< x, y \right> \in \bigcap{\mathscr{A}}$. By definition of the intersection of sets, $\exists y, \forall R \in \mathscr{A}, \left< x, y \right> \in R$. But this implies that $\forall R \in \mathscr{A}, \exists y, \left< x, y \right> \in R$. By another application of the definition of the \nameref{ref:domain} of a set, $\forall R \in \mathscr{A}, x \in \dom{R}$. By another application of the intersection of sets, $x \in \bigcap\;\{ \dom{R} \mid R \in \mathscr{A} \}$. Thus \eqref{sub:exercise-3.9-eq1} holds. \paragraph{(ii)}% Let $x \in \ran{\bigcap{\mathscr{A}}}$. By definition of the \nameref{ref:range} of a set, $\exists t, \left< t, x \right> \in \bigcap{\mathscr{A}}$. By definition of the intersection of sets, $\exists t, \forall R \in \mathscr{A}, \left< t, x \right> \in R$. But this implies that $\forall R \in \mathscr{A}, \exists t, \left< t, x \right> \in R$. By another application of the definition of the \nameref{ref:range} of a set, $\forall R \in \mathscr{A}, x \in \ran{R}$. By another application of the intersection of sets, $x \in \bigcap\;\{ \ran{R} \mid R \in \mathscr{A} \}$. Thus \eqref{sub:exercise-3.9-eq2} holds. \end{answer} \subsection{\partial{Exercise 3.10}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.10} Show that an ordered $4$-tuple is also an ordered $m$-tuple for every positive integer $m$ less than $4$. \begin{answer} Let $\left< x_1, x_2, x_3, x_4 \right>$ denote an arbitrary $4$-tuple. Then \begin{align} \left< x_1, x_2, x_3, x_4 \right> & = \left< \left< x_1, x_2, x_3 \right>, x_4 \right> & \label{sub:exercise-7.10-eq1} \\ & = \left< \left< \left< x_1, x_2 \right>, x_3 \right>, x_4 \right> & \label{sub:exercise-7.10-eq2} \end{align} Here \eqref{sub:exercise-7.10-eq1} is an equivalent ordered $2$-tuple and \eqref{sub:exercise-7.10-eq2} is an equivalent ordered $3$-tuple. Furthermore, $\left< x_1, x_2, x_3, x_4 \right> = \left< \left< x_1, x_2, x_3, x_4 \right> \right>$, showing it can be represented as an ordered $1$-tuple as well. \end{answer} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.11}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.11} Prove the following version (for functions) of the extensionality principle: Assume that $F$ and $G$ are functions, $\dom{F} = \dom{G}$, and $F(x) = G(x)$ for all $x$ in the common domain. Then $F = G$. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.12}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.12} Assume that $f$ and $g$ are functions and show that $$f \subseteq g \iff \dom{f} \subseteq \dom{g} \land (\forall x \in \dom{f}) f(x) = g(x).$$ \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.13}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.13} Assume that $f$ and $g$ are functions with $f \subseteq g$ and $\dom{g} \subseteq \dom{f}$. Show that $f = g$. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.14}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.14} Assume that $f$ and $g$ are functions. \begin{enumerate}[(a)] \item Show that $f \cap g$ is a function. \item Show that $f \cup g$ is a function iff $f(x) = g(x)$ for every $x$ in $(\dom{f}) \cap (\dom{g})$. \end{enumerate} \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.15}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.15} Let $\mathscr{A}$ be a set of functions such that for any $f$ and $g$ in $\mathscr{A}$, either $f \subseteq g$ or $g \subseteq f$. Show that $\bigcup \mathscr{A}$ is a function. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.16}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.16} Show that there is no set to which every function belongs. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.17}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.17} Show that the composition of two single-rooted sets is again single-rooted. Conclude that the composition of two one-to-one functions is again one-to-one. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.18}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.18} Let $R$ be the set $$\{ \left< 0, 1 \right>, \left< 0, 2 \right>, \left< 0, 3 \right>, \left< 1, 2 \right>, \left< 1, 3 \right>, \left< 2, 3 \right>\}.$$ Evaluate the following: $R \circ R$, $R \restriction \{1\}$, $R^{-1} \restriction \{1\}$, $\img{R}{\{1\}}$, and $\img{R^{-1}}{\{1\}}$. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.19}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.19} Let $$A = \{ \left< \emptyset, \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\} \right>, \left< \{\emptyset\}, \emptyset \right> \}.$$ Evaluate each of the following: $A(\emptyset)$, $\img{A}{\emptyset}$, $\img{A}{\{\emptyset\}}$, $\img{A}{\{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}}$, $A^{-1}$, $A \circ A$, $A \restriction \emptyset$, $A \restriction \{\emptyset\}$, $A \restriction \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}$, $\bigcup\bigcup A$. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.20}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.20} Show that $F \restriction A = F \cap (A \times \ran{F})$. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.21}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.21} Show that $(R \circ S) \circ T = R \circ (S \circ T)$. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.22}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.22} Show that the following are correct for any sets. \begin{enumerate}[(a)] \item $A \subseteq B \Rightarrow \img{F}{A} \subseteq \img{F}{B}$. \item $\img{(F \circ G)}{A} = \img{F}{\img{G}{A}}$. \item $Q \restriction (A \cup B) = (Q \restriction A) \cup (Q \restriction B)$. \end{enumerate} \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.23}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.23} Let $I_A$ be the identity function on the set $A$. Show that for any sets $B$ and $C$, $$B \circ I_A = B \restriction A \quad\text{and}\quad \img{I_A}{C} = A \cap C.$$ \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.24}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.24} Show that for a function $F$, $\img{F^{-1}}{A} = \{x \in \dom{F} \mid F(x) \in A\}$. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.25}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.25} \begin{enumerate}[(a)] \item Assume that $G$ is a one-to-one function. Show that $G \circ G^{-1}$ is $I_{\ran{G}}$, the identity function on $\ran{G}$. \item Show that the result of part (a) holds for any function $G$, not necessarily one-to-one. \end{enumerate} \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.26}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.26} Prove the second halves of parts (a) and (b) of Theorem 3K. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.27}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.27} Show that $\dom{(F \circ G)} = \img{G^{-1}}{\dom{F}}$ for any sets $F$ and $G$. ($F$ and $G$ need not be functions.) \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.28}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.28} Assume that $f$ is a one-to-one function from $A$ into $B$, and that $G$ is the function with $\dom{G} = \powerset{A}$ defined by the equation $G(X) = \img{f}{x}$. Show that $G$ maps $\powerset{A}$ one-to-one into $\powerset{B}$. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.29}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.29} Assume that $f \colon A \rightarrow B$ and define a function $G \colon B \rightarrow \powerset{A}$ by $$G(b) = \{x \in A \mid f(x) = b\}.$$ Show that if $f$ maps $A$ \textit{onto} $B$, then $G$ is one-to-one. Does the converse hold? \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.30}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.30} Assume that $F \colon \powerset{A} \rightarrow \powerset{A}$ and that $F$ has the monotonicity property: $$X \subseteq Y \subseteq A \Rightarrow F(X) \subseteq F(Y).$$ Define $$B = \bigcap\{X \subseteq A \mid F(X) \subseteq X\} \quad\text{and}\quad C = \bigcup\{X \subseteq A \mid X \subseteq F(X)\}.$$ \begin{enumerate}[(a)] \item Show that $F(B) = B$ and $F(C) = C$. \item Show that if $F(X) = X$, then $B \subseteq X \subseteq C$. \end{enumerate} \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \subsection{\unverified{Exercise 3.31}}% \label{sub:exercise-3.31} Show that from the first form of the axiom of choice we can prove the second form, and conversely. \begin{proof} TODO \end{proof} \end{document}